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A collection of deleted pages, listed in file name order.

Clothing

Over the decades of long-duration flight in the Russian space program, various specialized items of clothing and hygiene have been developed to ensure the comfort of those living on board a space station.

Inflight clothing has been developed by the Kentavr-Science, Ltd. company, in consultation with the Institute of Medical and Biological Problems. There are 21 items of clothing to choose from, including underwear, socks and lingerie (for women). Color is considered an important psychological factor for long missions; they should be appealing and harmonious with the Station’s interior color scheme. Cosmonauts can choose any color combination that appeals to them.

Quality control is strict. The clothing is cleaned, inspected and x-rayed for any stray pins or needles, sterilized with an electronic beam, packed in a hermetically-sealed bag and numbered. The clothing is tear-resistant and no buttons are used in case these should come loose and be accidentally swallowed in zero-g (zippers, Velcro and snaps are used instead).

The descriptions below were taken from the Service Module Medical Operations, Book 1 (in Links section), dated 25 September 2000, so clothing may have changed somewhat since then.

Underwear

Set of undergarments:

Change underwear once every 7 days; change socks every 3 days. 30 pairs of socks and 60 sets of underwear are provided for a 6-month flight per crewperson.

Kamelia-SM, «Камелиа-СМ» Set – worn as underwear and during physical training:

Change Kamelia-SM set once every 3 days. Wear for three days, then put aside to wear for one more day only during physical exercises.

Kamelia-A is light underwear; Kamelia-SM is warmer long underwear for cooler conditions. It can be worn by men and women. The material is a special elastic cotton.

The socks are specially padded to prevent crewmembers from developing flat feet in weightlessness, and are reinforced for treadmill workouts.

Disposable underwear set – for everyday wear:

Wear one set for four days.

Confection set – for everyday wear:

Confection sets come in individual sizes. Wear one set for three days.

Casual wear set – intended to provide for crew body temperature comfort during their stay in the ISS with ambient air temperature range of 20-30°С and is used for everyday wear:

The 6 T-shirts per package are different colors so a wearer can choose a color that suits his mood.

Costs (U.S. dollars): Camelia underwear is $45 to $50 apiece; a light suit is $90 to $95; socks are $3 per pair.

For ladies only!

Women have some nice lingerie to choose from: bras, T-shirts and bikini-type underpants, edged with lace, and made of cotton. A weekly set of underwear is provided; disposable underpants are changed each day. “The goal of this support is to make women on board feel like women, not just astronauts or cosmonauts.”

Cost: each lingerie set is $45 to $50 apiece.

Coveralls

Change coveralls

Change coveralls maintain crewmember’s comfortable body temperature under ISS ambient air temperatures in the range 20-30°С.

Coveralls have several types of pockets to hold documents, memos, photos, pencils, ballpoint pens, knife, etc.

Coveralls have lateral seams in thigh area with zippers. Upper part of coveralls’ backside with waist belt and lateral zippers forms a turndown flap (see Figure 3.2, p. 3-4 and Figure 3.3, p.3-5), allowing a wearer to use the toilet without doffing coveralls.

The coveralls are made of cotton and lavsan.

Cost: $350 per garment.

Warm coveralls

Warm coveralls maintain a crewmember’s comfortable body temperature under ISS ambient air temperatures in the range 15-20°С. Comfortable temperatures are characterized by preservation of relatively high work capability. The fabric is a fine U.S. synthetic.

Features:

Operator’s coveralls

Operator’s coveralls maintain crewmember’s comfortable body temperature under ISS ambient air temperatures in the range 20-30°С. Comfortable temperatures are characterized by preservation of relatively high work capability.

Accessories

Tool belt

The tool belt is worn by a crewmember when performing any maintenance or installation/deinstallation activities. Composition:

Depending on the type of activity, crewmember may use various configurations of tool belt, as well as its separate parts and components. The tool belt comes in one size and can be adjusted at the waist using provided Velcro clip. Tool belt is made from Velcro pile to which different types of multi-pockets are attached using a Velcro hook. The specific design of each multi-pocket or fixer is determined by its purpose (for screwdrivers, pencils, wrenches, etc.)

“Sprut” securing harness

“Sprut” securing harness is used to secure crewmember in working area during performance of various tasks.

Composition:

Harness set consists of belt, short and long straps, and stowage bag. The elastic components have the following letter codes:

Straps are made in the shape of special-design belts (see Figure 3.7, p. 3-10), consisting of tensile and non-tensile elements, and a waist belt. One of the non-tensile elements has a metal clasp with moving lock. For straps attachment, working area shall be equipped with snap hooks. A snap hook is attached to loop on the end of strap non-tensile element. Stowage bag, containing the Sprut securing harness, is made in the shape of polycaprolactam cover with Velcro fastener. Each component and separate ticket is labeled.

Mounter’s set

Mounter’s set is used by crewmember when performing any maintenance or installation/deinstallation activities. Depending on type of required work, crewmember may use Mounter’s set in its various configurations, as well as its separate components.

Composition:

Front part of apron has pockets, metal D-rings, detail straps, attachment loops. Mounter’s set includes right (with two pouches) and left thigh multipockets whose special design allows them to be attached onto crewmember’s thighs. Mounter’s set includes arm multipocket attached to elastic cuff to be worn on a crewmember’s left arm. Multipocket is used for temporary stowage of various small items and tools required during in-flight maintenance (IFM) activities.

The elbow sleeve made from elastic stockinet protects crewmember’s working arm from possible skin abrasions or lesions when performing IFM activities in narrow spaces. Elbow sleeve together with wrist cuff provide for hand and arm protection from any neuromuscular strains possible during IFM work. Elbow sleeve should be worn on working arm providing comfortable compression sensation; after donning elbow sleeve, wrist cuff is put on and adjusted to provide similar sensation in wrist area.

All Mounter’s set parts are individually labeled.

Other

Sports footwear

Sports footwear (one pair) is used during physical training. Their containing plastic bag is labeled.

Soyuz

There are also garments worn during the Soyuz flight to the ISS, after the Sokol rescue suits are doffed. These consist of unisex change coveralls, a warm jacket and long-sleeved t-shirts. Note the zipper at the crotch of the coveralls, which is to facilitate using the toilet without removing one’s clothing.

“To make the suit fit.” ISS-64 crew tried on flight clothes

Before going into space, cosmonauts need to decide in advance on the sets of clothes that will be delivered to them by a cargo ship on board the International Space Station. Clothes are sewn individually, taking into account the characteristics of the figure and personal preferences of the Expedition members. It meets the conditions in which it is applied. In addition, flight clothing is functional, versatile and comfortable. Some items can be worn as casual wear or sportswear. An important feature of the products is the variety of colors. This has a positive effect on the psychological mood of cosmonauts during long-term expeditions.

T-shirts, polo shirts, shorts, trousers, overalls, suits and sportswear are preferred on the International Space Station. From shoes at the station – sneakers and cycling shoes for exercise on a stationary bike.

Each garment has a different lifespan: polo shirts are worn no more than 15 days, shorts are designed for 30 days, and trousers for approximately 45 days. The underwear is usually put on and worn within three days.

An important element in the trousers is the presence of strips. As the cosmonauts say, they allow to fix trousers along the entire length of the leg in zero gravity and prevent them from getting up.

To select and determine the size of clothes and shoes, Sergei Ryzhikov, Sergei Kud-Sverchkov and Kathleen Rubins conducted special classes at the Cosmonaut Training Center, where they took measurements from each crew member, tried on finished products, and recorded comments on tailoring. After these comments were entered into the protocol, the clothes were sent for revision.

“They sew clothes individually,” commented Nadezhda Simakhina, head of the training session at the CTC, when the crew tried on flight clothes. “Up to a centimeter, the length of the sleeve, pant leg, footstocks is calculated. At the request of the cosmonaut, a chevron with the emblem of the crew or expedition, his hometown or university where he studied, or a patch with the initials of his first and last name can be made on a jumpsuit or T-shirt.”

According to N. Simakhina, eco-friendly fabrics are used when sewing clothes, and all products are subject to special checks to avoid unnecessary inclusions possible during manufacture.

The range of products was developed taking into account the opinion of cosmonauts and specialists of the Yu.A. Gagarin, LLC Kentavr-Science by orders of the Rocket and Space Corporation Energia named after S.P. Korolev, with the participation of the Institute of Medical and Biological Problems of the Russian Academy of Sciences.

(Source: TsPK/Roscomsos, 23/7/2020)

Gallery

Kentavr logo on space clothing

Kentavr logo on Sergei Krikalyov’s overalls.

ISS-64 in jumpsuits

Expedition 64 in their blue change coveralls or jumpsuits on the ISS, 30/10/2020.

Expedition 2 in Destiny lab, wearing warm coveralls

Expedition 2 wearing warm coveralls.

Yurii Gidzenko (ISS-1) communicating with ground controllers (NASA)

Yurii Gidzenko wearing operator’s coveralls.

Soyuz TMA-6 crew inflight

The Soyuz TMA-6 crew are clad in the garments worn during Soyuz flights to the ISS, 19 April 2005.

Links

Updated: 24/7/2020

Cosmonaut trivia

Some bits and pieces of information about cosmonauts.

Cosmonaut callsigns

Each Soyuz cosmonaut crew has a call-sign (позывной, pozyvnoi). These are a tradition from when crews were commanded by military/Air Force officers, and the signs were used for secrecy. This is no longer necessary, but the tradition continues (call-signs belong to the Russian commanders of the flights). From Mir Hardware Heritage:

Crew code names travel with the commander, and crew members take on the code name of the commander with whom they travel. For example, Helen Sharman returned to Earth in Soyuz TM-11 with commander Viktor Afanasyev (code name Derbent, «Дербент») and flight engineer Musa Manorov (Derbent Dva, «два, 2»). She thus became Derbent Tri, три (3) for her return to Earth. Sergei Krikalyov became Donbass Dva after Alexandr Volkov (code name Donbass, «Донбасс») replaced Artsebarski as his commander aboard Mir.

From Soyuz: A Universal Spacecraft:

Following a practise begun on the Vostok missions, each Commander assigns himself a callsign – usually derived from a geographical feature, a celestial body, a mineral, meteorological conditions, or from numerous other elements or phenomena. The Commander normally uses the same callsign on each of his missions, while the remainder of the crew adapt the same callsign, adding either “2” or “3” for personal identification. Several Flight Engineers have therefore, throughout their careers, used different callsigns when flying with different Commaders.

TsUP has a page (in Russian) with cosmonaut callsigns.

Crew formation

This information is derived from that posted by “Shams”/Шамс on the Novosti Kosmonavtki forum (4 January, 2004).

Crews are formed according to the following principles:

  1. Crews alternate between 2 Russians and 1 American, then 2 Americans and 1 Russian.
  2. Commanders of the Expeditions are alternatively a Russian cosmonaut, then an American astronaut. This has now changed a little with 2-person crews: S-8 and S-9 are commanded by Americans M. Foale and W. McArthur, respectively, but S-10 will be commanded by Russians G. Padalka then S-11 by S. Sharipov.
  3. Only experienced (previously flown into space) cosmonauts are assigned as Expedition commanders.
  4. Russian cosmonaut-testers consist of two groups (TsPK and RKKE); therefore those in charge try to assign crews evenly from both groups. The old rule that only military pilot-cosmonauts (from TsPK) could fly/command the Soyuz is no longer adhered to; cosmonaut-engineers from RKKE can be Soyuz commanders, also. (For example, in the crews S-12 and S-14 the TMA commanders are, correspondingly, Usachyov and Lazutkin).
  5. In crews where there are two cosmonauts assigned, one is flown, but another will be making his (or her) first flight. (With the ISS crews temporarily reduced to two, however, only experienced astronauts and cosmonauts are assigned as the ISS needs much maintenance.) Americans also adhere to this rule.

Emblem

A description of the Cosmonaut Group emblem, as described on the Space Encyclopedia Astronote, Космическая Энциклопедия ASTROnote, site – Эмблема отряда космонавтов России:

Cosmonaut Group patch

The emblem has the shape of a dual circle and is in the shape of a stylized spacecraft window or porthole. The top inscription reads: the “Cosmonaut Group,” below it: “Russia”. The edging and inscription are yellow; the cartouche is dark navy-blue. The inherent background of emblem is executed in the form of three spheres, which pass into space. The spheres symbolize by themselves the stages of the embodiment of the dream of humanity into the reality. The blue-colored lower sphere symbolizes mastery by man of its cradle, continents and oceans of the planet Earth. The medium-blue colored middle sphere symbolizes the mastery of the air and ocean. The dark blue colored upper sphere depicts the exit of man into the near-Earth outer space. The colors of spheres blend into the black background (or dark navy-blue), which is the symbol of the universe, space, infinity and unknown nature. Accomplishing flight beyond the limits of these spheres, man is torn away from his cradle and is heading for the stars.

The constellations of Ursa Major and Minor (large and small ladle), colored white, are superimposed against the emblem’s inherent background. The Pole star emits multiple rays. On the large ladle of the Pole star men determined the guiding thread of all original discoverers, travellers, researchers, explorers. All the basic coordinate systems, necessary during calculations of displacement both over the Earth, and in outer space, are focused on the Pole star.

Along the horizontal line of the emblem is placed the Latin inscription, also in white: “Per aspera ad astra” (“Through adversity to the stars!”) – the motto of the Russian Federation Cosmonaut Group.

The figure of the flying person occupies the central place in the emblem. He is sunlit (and is colored yellow) and he is facing the guiding star of humanity. The angle of the slope of body to the celestial axis composes 25°, or 65° relative to equatorial plane. Our compatriot Yurii Alekseevich Gagarin completed the first flight into space in the world on 12 April 1961, aboard the Vostok spacecraft. The angle of the orbit inclination composed 65°.

The emblem was developed in collaboration with the space center “Planet Earth”.

The emblem of the force of the cosmonauts of Russia was made official on 21 January, 2000, by the-then Rosaviakosmos Director-General Yu.N. Koptev. By this affirmation it provided that:

  1. The people who have the right to wear the patch with the emblem of the Russian Federation force of cosmonauts are the forces or groups of cosmonauts in the regular posts of cosmonaut-tester, cosmonaut-researcher, instructor of cosmonaut-tester, instructor-cosmonaut-researcher.
  2. The patch with the emblem of the Russian Federation force of cosmonauts can be placed on the service uniform, daily wear, training apparel, flight suits, and spacesuits.
  3. The patch with the emblem of the Russian Federation force of cosmonauts is sewn on the outer side of the right arm of clothing.

Salary

How much do cosmonauts get paid? Below is an extract from Russia in Space: The Failed Frontier? (Springer-Praxis, 2001).

The changes in the 1990s led to a significant alteration in the way in which cosmonauts were paid, one which amazed the Americans (and still does). American astronauts receive a standard military paycheck or, as civilians, a standard NASA one, regardless of whether they are on or off the planet. By contrast, following 1991, cosmonauts were put on an incentive system mimicking the worst practices of capitalism. Cosmonauts received a contract for each space mission, for which they were paid at a rate of $1001) a day (civilians were paid $80). They got a bonus of $1000 for a spacewalk. If particular aspects of the mission were not accomplished, fines were applied afterwards and deducted from the contract. For some peculiar reason, a bonus was applied for carrying out a manual docking. From the moment it was introduced, cosmonauts unfailingly informed ground control, about 10 metres before a smooth automatic docking, that unspecified problems had arisen and they had urgently to take over manual control!

Cosmonauts’ pay was also mentioned in this 2000 article about the Expedition 1 Russian crews’ wives, “Olga Gidzenko and Elena Krikalyov: The Cosmonauts’ Wives Talk Space”:

Want to be rich in Russia? Don’t be a cosmonaut

While being a cosmonaut offers the prestige of being one of the few humans to leave the planet, monetary compensation for the job is a sour point for space flyers and their families.

“I don’t think that Yuri is … [getting] … decent compensation for his hellishly hard work,” said Olga Gidzenko. “I believe that he deserves more both morally and materially.“

Elena Krikalyov agrees. “People who took smaller risks and spent less effort than cosmonauts make much more money,” Elena said. “Russia currently does not have a fair salary hierarchy.”

… Yuri Gidzenkno’s monthly salary is $250. It is still much higher than of many [Air Force] officers in Star City who make about $100 per month. Prices in the City are a little bit lower though, and when Yuri is preparing for a mission he gets free meals.

Sergei Krikalyov’s salary at RKK Energiya is about the same.

Gidzenko’s eldest son, Sergei, is studying in a paid college. Almost half of Yuri’s salary is spent on his tuition.

“We are able to maintain decent way of life for our family thanks to the money which Yuri makes on contracts while flying in space,” said Olga.

The Gidzenkos live in a three-bedroom apartment supplied to them free by Star City authorities. Its total area is 700 square feet (65 square meters). Krikalyov’s family lives in a three-story townhouse approximately three times as big as the Gidzenkos’ apartment. It also includes a garage.

1 The figures given are in U.S. dollars as the rouble – like the Australian dollar – is pegged against this, so both fluctuate depending upon the exchange rate.

From a posting at CollectSpace.com, 27 October 2007:

I believe they have gotten rid of [the performance contract] system for ISS, mainly since the crews are so cosmonaut and astronaut integrated now with the commanders alternating between Russian and American.

Concerning the pay rates though, there is still a difference. If a cosmonaut is living in Star City and launches to the ISS on a Soyuz, he gets his normal cosmonaut pay. If he goes to Houston and flies into space on the shuttle, then his pay from what I have read goes up to the level that US trained astronauts make for the duration of his duties in the US.

A 2010 article reported that cosmonauts get USD$130,000-$150,000 for a 6-month mission on board the International Space Station. The cosmonauts sign contracts for each mission, and the pay is different from their regular salary on Earth. In contrast, NASA astronauts receive an annual salary of up to up to $130,000 whether in space or not.

In this 2012 article from RIAN, Sergei Krikalyov says:

The job is demanding, but not a lucrative one, with the monthly salary for a top-grade cosmonaut standing at around 70,000 rubles ($USD2,300), Krikalev said. “It pays better to work as a porter,” he said, adding that one of the prime criteria for selection was motivation to go into space.

Rehabilitation

In the Soviet era, cosmonauts were sent to resorts on the Black Sea as part of their postflight rehabilitation. This practice ended after the collapse of the USSR, so other options had to be found. For a while, the Canary Islands were chosed, as described in this article from Friends & Partners in Space in 2001:

Russia spacemen to undergo rehabilitation on Canary isles

Tuesday, June 05, 2001 8:00 a.m. EST

Madrid, Jun 05, 2001 (Itar-Tass via COMTEX) – Russian spacefarers Talgat Musabayev and Yurii Baturin arrived in the Canary Islands to undergo their post-flight rehabilitation. They will recuperate under the observation of doctors on the island of Lanzarote, one of the most beautiful on “the archipelago of eternal spring”.

The autonomous government of the Canary Islands and the Moscow Medico-Biological Institute signed an agreement last year that Russian cosmonauts, returning from their missions, will undergo medical rehabilitation on the Canaries.

While drafting the agreement, the sides proceeded from the premise that the Canary Islands are not only a balmful climate but also top-class medical establishments which will help cosmonauts to recuperate fully their forces.

Russian cosmonauts Sergei Krikalyov and Yurii Gidzenko who spent two weeks on the island of Grand Canary, were the first to undergo recuperation there.

In the future, the Canary authorities are ready to receive cosmonauts from all countries, participating in the large-scale project of the International Space Station. (By Sergei Sereda)

See also “Cosmonauts head for the sun”.

After his Expedition 11 mission in 2005, Sergei Krikalyov said that he would spend part of his postflight rehabilitation in the spa city of Kislovodsk, Кисловодск, which lies in the North Caucasus region of Russia.

In October 2006 an agreement was signed between the Bashkiriya government prime minister Raphael Baydavletov and the chief of the Russian Yu.A. Gagarin Russian State Science Research Cosmonaut Training Centre (RGNII TsPK), Lieutenant-General Vasilii Tsibliev, for cosmonauts to conduct their rehabilitation at the Krasnousol’sk, «Красноусольск», sanatorium. Bashkortostan/Bashkiriya is a republic in the south of Russia, near the Ural Mountains.

According to Anik at NASASpaceflight.com, the cosmonauts can choose from a list of resorts which the GCTC has an agreement with.

From 2018, the city of Sochi, Krasnodar Territory (Сочи, Краснодарского края), was utilized for post-flight rehabilitation, in one of the sanatoriums there:

In 2018, Alexander Misurkin became the first cosmonaut in the new history of Russia undergoing rehabilitation in the resort city of Sochi. “Previously, my colleagues and I underwent rehabilitation mainly abroad,” said Alexander Alexandrovich in an interview in April 2018. “But here the level of comfort is just as good.”

An agreement on the organization of the post-flight rehabilitation of Russian cosmonauts in the resorts of the Krasnodar Territory was signed between the Ministry of Resorts of the Krasnodar Territory and the Yu.A. Cosmonaut Training Center. Gagarin in November 2018 at the International Tourism Forum SIFT in Sochi.

– TsPK news

Updated: 11/6/2020

Functional Cargo Block (FGB) Zarya

Zarya computer illustration (ESA)

Zarya («Заря», “dawn”), the first module of the ISS was launched on 20 November 1998 by a Proton-K rocket. It was developed by GKNPTs M.V. Khrunichev in Moscow, Russia under a subcontract to the Boeing company. The module is thus Russian-built and U.S.-funded. Construction was begun in 1994.

FGB Zarya initially provided flight control when it was docked with Unity, as well as electricity and fuel supplies. It had enough heptyl fuel (4.5 metric tonnes) to keep it in orbit for 430 days without refuelling.

After the Zvezda Service Module reached orbit, Zarya was relegated to back-up life support and used for storage, many of its functions taken over by the Service Module. The FGB has a lifetime of at least 15 years from its launch.

Full name: ФГБ – Функционально Грузовой Блок / FGB: Functional cargo block / Funktsional’no Gruzovoi Blok

Structure

Zarya is comprised of two main components:

An 800 mm-diameter hatchway connects the PGO and GA sections. The GA has 7.0 m3 of airtight volume; the PGO has 64.5 m3. Both segments are divided into an instrument zone (for various equipment) and habitable zone (for the crew). The instrument zone contains control systems and alarms, and is isolated from the habitable zone by panels.

The FGB has 90 storage lockers along its main corridor, in which supplies and various equipment are kept. Panel numbering in the PGO from forward – the GA, Pressurized Adapter – to aft (where Zvezda is attached):

Zarya has 3 docking assemblies. On the front end of the PGO (facing aft in the ISS layout) is located the active hybrid docking assembly, ASA-G, АСА-Г, and it is docked to the Zvezda Service Module. The rear end of the GA (forward in the ISS layout) is equipped with a passive androgynous docking assembly (АСПП, ASPP) which enables it to be docked with Pressurized Mating Adapter-1 of the U.S. segment. Also on the GA is a passive cone docking assembly perpendicular to the longitudinal X-axis of Zarya, where Soyuz and Progress ships can dock (i.e. it faces nadir or “down” towards Earth). The GA could be built with up to 5 docking ports, but only 2 were constructed for ISS use.

Three types of engines were used by Zarya:

The engines were decommissioned after Zvezda was launched and its systems activated.

Zarya’s fuel system stores and supplies fuel to the engines, and comprises a fuel (nitric tetraksid) and a combustible (unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine), stored in 16 fuel tanks (8 fuel, 8 oxidizer) and totalling 6100 kg. It can be resupplied via Progress cargo ships. It is divided into two subsystems: high pressure and low pressure. The latter supplies the low-thrust engines (DPS and DTS). 5 fuel and 5 oxidizer tanks are high-pressure; the remainder are low-pressure. Zarya was launched with partially-full tanks of 3800 kg.

Zarya derives its power from two solar arrays (СБ, SB), each 28 m2 (7 m long and 4 m wide) and covered on one side with glass-coated photoelectric converters; these were unfurled upon reaching orbit. The cells absorb 90% of sunlight on the side facing the sun, and 10% of reflected sunlight from Earth on their reverse sides. Power was transferred to 6 batteries in the power supply system (SES, СЭС) which, in the initial stages, supplied power to the FGB and Unity. Later after the arrival of Zvezda, Zarya converted power from the U.S. segment (124 V dc) for use in the Russian segment (28 V dc).

Zarya’s solar arrays were retracted in September 2007 to provide clearance for the U.S. segment radiators that would be unfurled later in the year. The starboard wing was folded in on 28/9 (14:09-14:26 UTC) and the port wing on 29/9 (12:59-13:14 UTC).

Zarya’s systems are divided into a support section and Station section. The support section helped Zarya function during autonomous flight and docking; the Station section helps the FGB interact with the rest of the ISS.

The support section comprises:

The Station section comprises:

Data tables

Zarya: fundamental technical characteristics
Mass in orbit, kg 20,040
Length of housing, mm 12,990
Maximum diameter, mm 4100
Volume of airtight sections, cubic meters 71.5
Spread of solar batteries, mm 24,400
Area of photovoltaic cells, meters squared 28
Average power of power supply, KVT/SUT 3
Fuel mass, kg 3800
Duration of functioning in orbit, years 15
Manufacturer Khrunichev
Zarya launch data
Designation 77KM No 17501
NASA designation 1A/R
Name ФГБ: Функционально Грузовой Блок
FGB: Functional cargo block
Funktsional’no Gruzovoi Blok
Launch vehicle Proton-K (No 395-01)
Launch site Launch complex 81/23, Baikonur Cosmodrome, Republic of Kazakhstan
Launch date 20 November 1998 at 06:40
Mission Launch of the first Russian ISS module (FGB). The U.S. Unity module was docked to it during the STS-88 mission

Diagrams

The following Zarya exterior diagrams are taken from the Space Station User’s Guide: NASA ISS EVA Operations Documents PDFs at Spaceref.com:

Gallery

Zarya from STS-88

A nadir (bottom) view of Zarya, taken during the STS-88 mission, 6 December 1998. The cylindrical Pressurized Adapter (GA, ГА) is at the bottom of the picture.

Dezhurov in Zarya

Vladimir Dezhurov (ISS-3) in Zarya’s main corridor, at the forward end. Port is on the left of the picture; starboard on the right. The storage lockers are visible.

Zarya with solar arrays retracted, October 2007

Zarya in October 2007 after its solar panels were retracted in September.

Links

Updated: 12/4/2019

Future spaceships

Russia has no shortage of future spaceship designs and proposals, but as always the problem is in getting funding! The PTK NP looks to be the most certain at the time of writing, while the Kliper, Parom and TKS have been abandoned, though elements of their designs may still be used.

Oryol

In August 2019, Roscosmos chief announced that the Federation spacecraft would be named Oryol (or Orel), Орёл (Eagle), honoring the first Russian military sailing vessel. It will be launched from Vostochniy Cosmodrome on an Angara rocket.

Oryol – a reusable manned transport spacecraft of a new generation, developed by RSC Energia. Its purpose is the delivery of people and goods beyond Earth orbit, including to the Moon. If necessary, a lightweight ship can be used for flights to space stations in low Earth orbit. The crew of the Oryol will number up to four people. In autonomous flight mode, the ship will be able to stay up to 30 days, and while flying as part of an orbital station, up to one year.

Digital rendering of Oryol Digital rendering of Oryol

Digital renderings of Oryol, from an Interview with Igor Khamits, 22/6/2020 (Roskosmos/Energiya)

Oryol news links

RSC Energia tests rappelling device for Orel CTS, June 5, 2020.

(Roskosmos website articles tagged with Oryol)

Rogozin denied information about the development of a new spacecraft

19/4/2020

MOSCOW, April 19 – RIA News. A new manned spacecraft for low-Earth orbit flights will not be created to replace Soyuz MS spacecraft, instead, astronauts will use the Oryol, “Eagle” (Орел) spacecraft intended for the lunar program, said Dmitry Rogozin, head of the Russian Space Agency. “In fact, there will be one and the same ship, just for delivery to the ISS (International Space Station) it will have less fueling. The only question is in the economy. How much will it cost,” Rogozin said on KP radio.

Earlier at the celebration of the 60th anniversary of the cosmonaut corps and the Cosmonaut Training Center, Rogozin announced the need to begin developing a new manned spacecraft. After that, a number of media reported that the new ship should be much lighter than the Oryol and Roscosmos in the coming days will begin to develop technical specifications for it. At the same time, the completion of the design of the orbital version of the Oryol was reported back in 2017.

The ship Oryol (formerly called the “Federation,” Федерация) has been developed since 2009. It is created primarily for flights to the Moon, and flights to orbital stations are considered for testing its systems. In September 2019, the press service of Roscosmos told RIA Novosti that Russia would build a universal version of the new manned spacecraft Orel instead of creating a separate version for flights to low Earth orbit and separately to the Moon. Russia is currently operating Soyuz spacecraft.

Cosmonauts will be in orbit on the Angara longer than Gagarin

03/03/2020

MOSCOW, Mar 3 – RIA Novosti. When launching from the Vostochny spaceport on the Angara rocket, the crew of the new Russian spacecraft Oryol will go into orbit longer than when launching from Baikonur in the Soyuz spacecraft on the Soyuz rocket, and longer than Yuri Gagarin flew into space, the materials of the Rocket and Space Corporation Energia, presented in Roskosmos, said (a copy is available to RIA Novosti).

According to the materials, 742 seconds will elapse from the launch of the Angara rocket to the separation of the Oryol ship from it at an altitude of 200 kilometers during normal flight. After that, the ship will have to fly autonomously, for example, to the International Space Station, as prescribed by the flight test program.

Now the astronauts get into orbit 200 km high on the Soyuz spacecraft in 528 seconds, that is, three and a half minutes faster. The difference is due to the fact that the mass of the Oryol when flying into low Earth orbit will be 20 tons, and the spacecraft Soyuz is 7.3 tons. In addition, the parameters of the missiles – the heavy Angara-A5 and the Soyuz-2 medium-class missiles – differ.

Roscosmos will spend eight billion rubles on the ship “Eagle”

03:08 01/13/2020 (updated: 09:06 01/13/2020)

MOSCOW, Jan 13 – RIA News. Roskosmos in 2021 plans to provide more than eight billion rubles for the serial production of a new generation of manned spacecraft “Eagle”, designed for flights on the ISS and the Moon. This follows from the materials posted on the public procurement website.

The space rocket Corporation Energia (an enterprise of Roscosmos) is engaged in production; in the coming years it is to build two ships.

One of them will become a full-size prototype for tests at the first launch on Angara-A5 heavy class carriers in 2023 and the Yenisei superheavy class in 2028. The second – a full reusable ship for flight tests and subsequent operation.

It is clarified that in 2021, Roskosmos intends to order the “creation of a second flight product” for 8.1 billion rubles.

The development of the first “Eagle”, which was previously called the “Federation”, has been ongoing for ten years. In December 2019, Energia requested an additional 18 billion rubles from Roskosmos. The CEO of the corporation Dmitry Rogozin explained that the money needed to create infrastructure at the Vostochny spaceport.

Earlier it was reported that the first test launch of the Orel ship will take place in August-September 2023 on the Angara-A5 rocket. In 2024, an unmanned flight is planned, in 2025, a manned flight to the ISS.

In 2026 and 2027, flights on the Angara should also take place, and in 2028 the first start on the Yenisei. Then the flight tests of the ship are planned to be completed and go to its operation. In 2029, the moon was preliminarily scheduled to fly, and in 2030, the Russian astronauts landed on its surface.

Some elements of Russia’s next-generation spacecraft already manufactured

MOSCOW, February 4 2020. /TASS/. Russia’s Rocket and Space Corporation Energia (RSC Energia) has already manufactured a number of elements for the next-generation spacecraft, Oryol, Roscosmos Director General Dmitry Rogozin told TASS in an interview.

"Certain elements have already been manufactured, including the bottom area and power lines," Rogozin said.

According to the official, RSC Energia is now preparing to launch the production of the new spacecraft, including by installing new manufacturing equipment and training its personnel to use it.

Oryol’s avionics, manipulators, computer systems and other elements are now undergoing tests.

Robot to become test pilot of Russia’s next-generation manned spacecraft

MOSCOW, September 12. /TASS/. The Android Technology Company is designing a robot that will test Russia’s next-generation partially reusable spacecraft Orel (Eagle), formerly known as Federatsiya, the company’s acting director Yevgeny Dudorov told TASS.

The official said his company was designing a “robotic system that will be the first to test the Federatsiya spacecraft.”

“If everything proceeds smoothly, it will be ready in 2022,” Dudorov said, adding that the robot will perform the first and second test flights of the spacecraft.

Besides, the robotic system can be “transformed for planetary missions,” including to the Moon and Mars.

The Federatsiya (Orel) spacecraft is being developed by the Energia Space Rocket Corporation. The spacecraft is designed to deliver humans and cargoes both into a near-Earth orbit and into deep space. The spacecraft will have a crew of up to 4 persons. It will be capable of operating in the mode of an autonomous flight for up to 30 days and for a term of a year as part of an orbital station.

The first uncrewed launch of Orel is scheduled for 2023, from the Vostochny space center in Russia’s Far East. No docking with the ISS is planned. During the second launch, due in 2024, the spacecraft will dock with the orbital outpost. Manned Orel missions are to begin in 2025.

Federation (PTK NP/PKNP)

PPTS concept art

The PTK NP (ПТК НП, пилотируемый транспортный корабль нового поколения) – New Generation Crew Transport Spaceship (NG CTS) is the latest proposal for a new Russian manned spaceship to replace the Soyuz.

Previously known as the Advanced Crew Transportation System (PPTS, ППТС: Перспективная Пилотируемая Транспортная Система), the PTK NP was initially to have be a spacecraft designed co-operatively between RKK Energiya and the European Space Agency. Initial discussions between the two agencies began in 2007.

Various studies and talks were conducted, but in October 2008 ESA ultimately decided not to go ahead with the project. ESA instead intended to focus on developing its own Advanced Re-entry Vehicle (ARV), based on an upgraded ATV service module.

In early 2009, Roscosmos decided to put out a tender for Russian companies to develop the PTK NP. The companies competing were Energiya and Khrunichev, both spaceship-builders. On 6 April, Roskosmos announced the winner was Energiya.

There are three prospective versions of the PTK NP spacecraft:

The initial name for the spacecraft is the Rus’, «Русь». A competition to formally name it was held in 2015; on 15 January 2016 Roskosmos announced the craft was to be named Federatsiya, «Федерация» (Federation).

On 15 March 2019 the director general of Russia’s state corporation Roscosmos, Dmitry Rogozin, announced that the spacecraft would be renamed with a “male name”:

BAIKONUR /Kazakhstan/, March 15. /TASS/. A new name has been invented for Russia’s new-generation spacecraft, currently known as Federatsiya (Federation), the director general of Russia’s state corporation Roscosmos, Dmitry Rogozin, told reporters on Friday.

“We have invented [a new name],” Rogozin said, without disclosing it.

Earlier, Rogozin announced that the corporation would give a “male name” to its new-generation partially-reusable manned spacecraft.

The Federatsiya spacecraft is being developed by the Energia Space Rocket Corporation. The spacecraft is designed to deliver humans and cargoes both into a near-Earth orbit and into deep space. The spacecraft will have a crew of up to 4 persons. It will be capable of operating in the mode of an autonomous flight for up to 30 days and for a term of a year as part of an orbital station.

As the Energia press office reported, the corporation has issued the main volume of working design documentation for holding autonomous and comprehensive trials. Energia has also launched work to make the mockups of the spacecraft’s compartments, including their structural design and onboard systems. The promising transport spacecraft is scheduled to enter flight trials in 2023.

The returnable section of the manned PTK NP will be a cone-shape similar to the Soyuz, and may land under parachutes, and/or with rocket assistance. It may be re-usable for future flights, for up to 10 missions over its 15-year lifespan. The PTK NP will use environmentally-friendly propellants (kerosene fuel and liquid oxygen oxidizer for the rocket’s first stage; liquid hydrogen/liquid oxygen for the second).

The PTK NP was to be launched on the new Rus-M launcher, to be produced by the Samara Space Center, who came up with the preliminary design in 2010. The launcher was to replace the Soyuz-FG rocket, but was canceled in October 2011 due to cost. It is now planned to use the Angara-A5V and Angara-A5P heavy launchers.

It will have a new seat design called Cheget (after a Caucasus mountain). Unlike the Soyuz seat – which has to have a fitted custom molded liner for every passenger – the 27 kg Cheget will be adjustable for different sizes, saving on mission costs and time. It will still be manufactured by NPP Zvezda.

In June 2018 a model of the craft begun aerodynamic testing, and outfitting of the interior took place.

Federation news

Energia search results for “Federatsiya” on their website.

Previous projects

Kliper
«Клипер»

The Kliper (“Clipper”) was first announced at an ITAR-TASS press conference on 17 February 2004 by then-head of Rosaviakosmos, Yurii Koptev. Energiya had begun working on the design of this new spaceship in 2000. Lack of funding initially hindered further development. The Kliper was included in the Russian government space plan for 2005-2015.

The Kliper configuration underwent a few changes since it was announced. In 2005 a plan was announced for an orbital tug called “Parom” to dock with a lighter Kliper version (both launched on a smaller booster than the proposed Soyuz-3 rocket) and then tow it to the ISS.

On 10 June 2005 ESA Director Genereal Jean-Jacques Dordain met with Anatoly Perminov, Head of the Federal Space Agency, to discuss future ESA-Russia space co-operation in the areas of Human Spaceflight, Microgravity and Exploration; Launchers; Telecommunications, Navigation, and Earth Observation. Regarding Kliper, it was agreed to develop a joint plan of work, to be presented at the ESA Ministerial Council in December 2005. At the December meeting, ESA government ministers initially declined the proposal to participate in the Kliper program (a 2-year research effort costing 51 million euros – $59.8 million), but did not reject it outright.

Such co-operation would be advantageous to both organizations, sharing the funding and development costs and giving ESA additional access to space. The Kliper could be launched from Russian facilities and the European space port in Kourou, French Guiana.

On 18 January 2006 Roskosmos put out a tender for the development of the Kliper, to be decided between the companies RKK Energiya, GKNPTs Khrunichev and NPO Molniya. The results were initially to be announced in the first half of February, but delayed this to April, the reason given being financial, safety and delivery data in bids. Energiya remained the favorite for the contract.

But in July Anatolii Perminov announced that Roskosmos was suspending the tender and instead would concentrate on developing a manned Soyuz-style space system first; a vehicle that would be capable of lunar circumnavigation flights using a Soyuz spaceship and a habitation module based on the Kliper’s cabin module. Energiya was selected to lead this development; it would continue to develop the Kliper in the meantime, though at a slower pace with less funding. Its plan was to develop Kliper by 2015 and field-test it in 2016.

The-then President of Energiya, Nikolai Sevastyanov, was the main proponent of Kliper, but the design proved too ambitious and expensive, and he was ousted as President, and Kliper was abandoned.

Energiya Kliper diagram, February 2006

Energiya Kliper computer concept illustration, February 2006

Technical data

The Kliper would carry 2 pilots and up to 4 passengers. It would have a launch escape system similar to that of the Soyuz spacecraft.

It was of an aerodynamic lifting-body-type design and could thus conduct gliding maneuvers during re-entry (up to 500 km either side of its ground track), unlike the ballistic Soyuz Descent Module. Thermal protection systems were derived from both the Buran and Soyuz. It had a length of 10 meters and maximum diameter of 3.6 meters. The propulsion system is UDMH (Unsymmetric Dimethyl Hydrazine, propellant fuel) and Nitrogen Tetroxide (N2O4, an oxidizer).

Two design modifications were possible:

  1. Load-carrying hull. This would enable the Kliper to land on any flat surface using its 3 parachutes, similar to the Soyuz today.
  2. An aircraft-type hull (winged version). This lifting-body design, developed with the OKB Sukhoi design bureau, would limit the Kliper to landing on a runway like the Space Shuttle, but increase its gliding range from 500 km to 2000 km.

The inner crew compartment could be slotted inside either design, depending upon the flight requirements.

The Kliper was to be partly reusable, with a detachable front re-entry capsule which landed with the aid of three parachutes and solid-propellant engines. The habitation module (OA) was mounted behind the re-entry capsule and contained docking hardware and life-support systems. Surrounding this was the PAO which contained power supplies (power supplied by two solar panels) and orbital maneuvering systems. Both OA and PAO were to bejettisoned on re-entry to the atmosphere.

Reuse after each flight:

Replace after each flight:

The estimated development cost of the Kliper was 10 billion rubles.

There were currently three possible launch rockets proposed:

  1. Onega, a proposed new generation rocket from Energiya. It is a modified Soyuz rocket, and would be launched from a Plesetsk launch pad.
  2. The Angara booster rocket, another new-generation rocket under development.
  3. The Ukrainian Zenit, launched from Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan.

Kliper could even possibly have been launched from other pads, such as the ESA pad in Kourou, French Guiana.

Kliper cutaway diagram (Novosti Kosmonavtiki)

Kliper cutaway diagram. Top descriptions, left to right:

Bottom descriptions, left to right:

Some Kliper technical data, in English and Russian:

Kliper piloted spacecraft
Mass, kilograms 13,000
• Re-entry module, mass 8800
• Habitation module, mass 4200
Crew number 6
Cargo mass, kg
• Launched 500
• Returned 500
• Moved away 200
Volume of flight deck, m3 20
Time of autonomous flight, days 5
Maximum time spent docked to orbital station, days 360
G-force loads, regular descent profile 2.5
Carrier-rocket Zenit-2SLB
«Клипер» пилотируемый космический корабль
Масса, кг, в т. ч. 13,000
• возвращаемый аппарат 8800
• агрегатно-бытовой отсек 4200
Колическво членов экипажа, чел. 6
Масса грузов, кг
• доставляемых 500
• возвращаемых 500
• удаляемых 200
Объем кабины экипажа, м3 20
Время автономного полека, сут. 5
Время нахождения в составе орбитальной станции, сут. 360
Перегрузки при штатном спуске, ед. 2.5
Ракета-носитель «Зенит-2SLБ»

Parom
«Паром»

Parom orbital tug (Energiya)

The Parom (“Ferry”) was a proposed reusable replacement for the Progress cargo ship, and would also serve as an unmanned orbital tug for the Kliper spaceship. The Parom is a different concept to the Progress. It would be launched into orbit and wait near the Space Station for cargo containers to be launched later; these containers would not need the complex guidance systems currently used by the Progress. The containers would dock with the Parom, which would in turn guide and propel itself to dock with the ISS. The Parom has docking ports at each end, and fuel transfer lines so that fuel can be transferred through it from the cargo container to the Station. It could also propel a payload into a higher orbit, or take a waste container down to the atmosphere to be incinerated, and head up back to orbit after releasing this. The 6800 kg Parom’s engines could handle cargo up to 27 215 kg.

It was proposed that the Parom could be used to tow a lighter version of the Kliper to the ISS. The reason for this was so that both ships could be launched on a version of the existing Soyuz-2 rocket (designated Soyuz-2-3), rather than a modified Soyuz-3, Zenit-2 or not-yet-developed Angara-2. The Soyuz-2-3 could also be launched from Europe’s Spaceport in French Guiana; the equatorial location means that more payload could be carried into orbit (the Earth rotates faster at the Equator and acts as a slingshot to help propel a spacecraft into orbit).

Cargo container (Energiya)

TKS
ТКС

The TKS (Транспортный корабль снабжения, Transportniy Korabl Snabzheniya, transport supply ship) was a proposed manned spaceship by the Khrunichev design bureau, based on the original TKS series developed from the 1960s. It would carry up to 6 crew and 6350 kg of cargo to Low Earth Orbit, and be used up to 10 times. Its launch vehicle would be the Angara A3M rocket. The TKS vaguely resembled the Apollo capsule in shape. For the January 2006 tender Khrunichev put forward several versions of the basic TKS (manned and unmanned) for consideration, but with the cancellation of the tender in July, the status of the TKS is unknown.

Links

Updated: 24/6/2020

Gidrolab training

Neutral buoyancy is the only effective means of simulating weightlessness on Earth for extended periods. Russian spacesuit training takes place at the Vykhod, Выход (“Exit”) Training Facility in the Cosmonaut Training Center at Zvyozdnyi Gorodok, Star Town. This facility was first opened on 28 January, 1980.

Before underwater training, the cosmonauts first partake in classroom lectures as they learn about the Orlan spacesuit’s systems.

They also familiarize themselves with wearing an Orlan in the Egress Simulator. This Orlan-T (training) suit is suspended by an overhead wire-and-pulley system, and is pressurized to the same pressure as it would be in the vacuum of space. Here the cosmonauts learn basic Orlan emergency procedures and how to operate the airlocks in normal and emergency situations.

During the final week of training, cosmonauts are given SCUBA diving practise in the Hydrolab to assess their diving skills and learn emergency procedures for coping with an unconscious diver.

Gidrolaboratoriya

The Russian Neutral Buoyancy Laboratory is called the Gidrolaboratoriya, Гидролаборатория (GL) – Hydrolaboratory.

The circular GL has 45 windows set in its sides, each with a diameter of 0.3 meters, and located at three different levels. The spacewalk training can be filmed and photographed through these windows. The lighting system lamps emit light of a particular spectrum and enable night and day conditions to be simulated. The swimming pool itself is filled with specially-treated water which aids clear viewing of the training. The water has a lower chlorine level than an average swimming pool, both to prevent chlorine poisoning and to save the equipment in the water from corrosion.

Mock-ups of space complexes provide a realistic training environment; these currently are modules of the International Space Station. Using platforms (which can support up to 15.4 tons), these can be lowered into and raised from the pool. The mock-ups are exact replicas of the real modules’ exteriors.

Air and water supplies facilities support those using the Orlan-GN spacesuits. Two lifting cranes move those in the spacesuits to and from the pool (the 100 kg suits are too heavy to move in unaided). Training hours are usually between 9 a.m. to 2 p.m. Training sessions can last for up to 7 hours, though preferably not longer as the SCUBA divers could get cold.

The Orlan spacesuits are connected to the control room by a 50-meter umbilical cable, through which water, air and power are provided. It also carries telemetry from the suits to those monitoring from the control room.

The SCUBA divers who assist the spacesuited trainees have their own support facilities: their diving equipment and the PDK-2U, ПДК-2У decompression chamber, which simulates underwater submersion down to 100 m (10 atmospheres). There are two main categories of divers: professional Navy warrant officers, and TsPK Air Force officers, some being cosmonaut-candidates gaining spacewalk simulator experience.

Safety is a priority during a training session. At least seven divers will be in the water with the Orlan-suited trainees to assure safety. In case of an emergency, each trainee can be pulled out of the water in four minutes at most.

A hyperbaric oxygen complex (гипербарической оксигенации – giperbaricheskoi oksigenatsii [ГБО]) provides medical support for the spacesuit wearers and SCUBA divers. It is comprised of two single-seat medical altitude chambers. An emergency ambulance is also on standby.

Tasks that can be simulated during training include:

The U.S. and Russian training methods have differed in philosophy: NASA spacewalkers usually train for carefully-planned specific tasks that they will need for a short-term Shuttle mission. They are in constant contact with Mission Control, so they can quickly get advice on a task if needed. Russian spacewalkers train in a general spacewalk methodology, so they can draw on this knowledge for unexpected situations arising during a mission. This training is more suited to long-duration flights. On Mir, they were also out of contact with TsUP for long periods during orbits, so they needed to be more self-reliant. Both training philosophies complement each other, and are utilized for the ISS.

As noted below, the Gidrolab underwent maintenance in 2014 and came back into use in 2020:

“The hydrolaboratory of the Cosmonaut Training Center named after Yu.A. Gagarin has practically been restored. Scuba divers prepare submerged mock-up of Multifunctional Laboratory Module #МЛМ to tests involving astronauts. They will begin on April 24 with the participation of Hero of Russia Sergei Ryzhikov. After #MLM will be sent to #ISS, it will take several exits of our astronauts at once to connect different systems. Therefore, to minimize risks, our future crew is working out all operations with #MLM in the hydro lab in Star City.” (Via Dimitrii Rogozin’s Twitter feed)

Vykhod zero-gravity simulator

There are two facilities that enable the simulation of zero-gravity by suspending spacesuit wearers from pulleys in the ceiling. The first-built facility was designated Vykhod-1, Выход-1. This was only a small room that could accommodate two specialists and a cosmonaut, and had two spacesuits available.

The second facility, Vykhod-2, was constructed in 2001 for ISS training, specifically for egressing/ingressing the Pirs docking compartment hatches. There are two overhead cranes (MOST-1 & -2, МОСТ-1 & -2) and a twin boom suspension system. The Orlan spacesuits used are the Orlan-T model.

From a NASASpaceflight.com forum post by B. Hendrickx on 18/8/2017:

It may be interesting to note that the cosmonauts have not done any underwater training for this EVA for the simple reason that the neutral buoyancy facility at Star City has been out of action for maintenance since late 2014. The sole way of simulating EVAs now is to use a simulator called Vykhod-2 (Egress-2), which was introduced in 2002. Here’s a video showing cosmonaut Oleg Artemyev undergoing training in the simulator.

Gallery

Orlan classroom lesson (JAXA)

Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency trainees learning about the Orlan spacesuit in the classroom.

Training in the Egress Simulator (JAXA)

JAXA trainees dangle rather precariously as they train in the Egress Simulator wearing Orlan-T spacesuits.

Training in hydrolab (Atlas Aerospace)

Underwater view of the cosmonauts and assistant divers through the Hydrolab windows.

Gidrolab, 14/4/2020

Photo of the Gidrolaboratory after restoration, 14 April 2020.

Links

Updated: 20/4/2020

Personal hygiene

Over the decades of long-duration flight in the Russian space program, various specialized items of clothing and hygiene have been developed to ensure the comfort of those living on board a space station. Personal hygiene items are described on this page.

Researchers at the Russian Institute of Medical-Biological Problems consider hygiene as a major contributor towards psychological comfort, and devised various products to enable this.

People shed microscopic skin particles continuously on Earth, and this process is accelerated in zero-gravity (up to 3 grams of skin can be shed daily, and 5000 cells of epithelium when changing clothes. Something not to dwell upon too much). People also sweat more in orbit.

Wet towel kit

Keeping clean in orbit requires somewhat different tactics to what people are used to on Earth. Experiments with shower devices in the past on the Salyut stations and Mir proved impractical; setting up the shower took a lot of time and water does not flow but breaks into droplets and adheres to the skin, and a cosmonaut can choke on the water droplets. Water on a space station is also a scarce commodity to be preserved whenever possible. So wet fabric towels and napkins, treated with a special disinfecting lotion, are utilized instead. These are apparently quite effective. The towels are fabric rather than paper, as the latter material could introduce dust particles into the Station atmosphere.

People can become oversensitive to strong odors in space, so no products that emit these are brought onboard. There are no alcohol-based personal hygiene products; instead, the wet towels have a mild blended odor of almond and green apples. Also, as humidity in the Station’s atmosphere is recycled, any alcohol in the air would be recycled as pure vodka, not water!

Cleaning teeth is also important; salivation is reduced in zero-g and saliva becomes more concentrated. This can lead to a build-up of tartar. So a menthol-tasting chewing gum is provided (an off-the-shelf brand) to be chewed after each meal. Toothpaste is also used. An Oral Cavity Hygiene Kit includes a rubber finger cover that is used to massage the gums.

Women are allowed to take some of their personal cosmetics on board if they wish, such as lipstick and eyeshadow.

Men can shave using a manual or electric razor. The latter is modified to catch hair so it doesn’t float all over the place. (Mark Shuttleworth mentioned in one of his ISS training diaries that the ISS-approved manual razor was the Gillette Sensor Excel.)

For NASA shuttle flights, items that can be bought commercially on Earth are used. These tend to be used with water; for the short-term Shuttle missions this is not a concern.

Hair is kept clean with an alcohol-free shampoo called “Aelita,” «Аелита». It is applied with a napkin and rubbed into the hair.

Hygiene items are packed into a kit called “Komfort,” «Комфорт». This is a blue, portfolio-like bag weighing about 1.1 kg with Velcro strips for attaching it to the walls of the Station. There are three designations of Komfort:

Below are extracts from the Service Module Medical Operations, Book 1, issued by Energiya in 2000. The designations for the Komfort kit are a bit different to that mentioned above (perhaps 1M is the same as 2).

Komfort personal hygiene set

Komfort 1-M diagram

Note: Komfort-1M, «Комфорт 1-М» set is made up with account of crewmember’s personal features.

Komfort-1M set contents (for individual use):

Komfort-3 set contents (for replenishment of Komfort-1M set):

For brushing teeth, use toothpaste and Oral Cavity Hygiene kit

Right: open View of Komfort-1M Personal Hygiene Set

Aelita hygiene set

Purpose: Aelita, «Аелита» set is used for hair care

Contents of Aelita hygiene set:

Personal hygiene articles

Links

Microgravity countermeasures

The Russian equipment to counter the effects of long-term exposure to microgravity consist of specialized equipment and exercise regimes, which are summarized here.

Exercise

If cosmonauts and astronauts wish to return to Earth in reasonable health, daily exercise is a must! People in space lose as much calcium in their bones each month as a menopausal woman does in a year, so load-bearing exercise is the only way so far to help combat this. Obviously, lifting weights is not possible in microgravity, so pulling elastic bands and aerobic exercise while secured are ways developed to allow exercise in this environment.

On the International Space Station (and previously on Mir), crew members are required to exercise for 2½ hours per day (half of this time is used for setup and post-exercise personal hygiene). This is not done in one block but divided into two sessions, usually one session aerobic (cardiovascular) and the other anerobic (muscle-loading/conditioning).

Example from an Expedition 11 timeline (17/6):

ISS crew timeline exercise schedule
Time Crewperson Activity
11:00-12:00 CDR Physical Exercise (VELO + Force Loader 1) day 1
11:05-12:05 FE-1 Physical exercise (TVIS)
16:45-18:15 FE-1 Physical exercise (RED)
16:45-18:15 CDR Physical Exercise (TVIS) Day 1
18:35-18:40 FE-1 Transfer TVIS, RED, and HRM data to MEC

Data is transferred to an onboard laptop computer and then to the ground for specialists to analyze.

The main types of exercise available on the International Space Station (as was the case on Mir) are running on a treadmill, bicycling on a cycle ergometer and resistance training using cables (lifting weights is obviously ineffective in microgravity!). The U.S. equipment on board consistes of:

Devices

Since the era of the Salyut space stations, the Russians have developed various pieces of equipment to aid cosmonauts in staying healthy during their time onboard.

Braslet
«Браслет»

The Braslet (“Bracelet”) is a set of compression cuffs and straps worn in a crewmember’s first few days of adapting to the microgravity environment. Fluid naturally tends to accumulate in the upper portions of the body away from the legs, causing some discomfort (such as stuffy sinuses) and the Braslet is used to counteract this by compressing the lower extremities and forcing blood to circulate there.

Braslet and Braslet-М units should be used during acute phase of adaptation to microgravity for prevention of its adverse effect on cardiovascular system. During operation, compression cuffs are attached to belt using pull-up straps. Belt is used to secure compression cuffs in working position on crewmember’s thighs using freely moving pull-up straps. Braslet and Braslet-М units in their working state create compression in upper thirds of crewmember’s thighs. This causes a part of circulating blood volume to relocate from upper body to lower extremities, which corrects the adverse hemodynamic effect of microgravity, thus improving crewmember’s working capability.

– Service Module Medical Operations, Book 1

Chibis
«Чибис»

The Chibis is a reduced-pressure mechanical device that provides negative pressure around the wearer’s lower body in order to assess cardiovascular fitness prior to return to Earth. (It was evidently the inspiration for the Wallace & Gromit movie, The Wrong Trousers …) Blood is forced down to the wearer’s legs, increasing the heart rate and giving the crewmember a cardiovascular workout.

Description from On-Orbit Reports:

In preparation for his return to gravity, Sasha had the first preliminary training session in the Chibis LBNP suit (lower body negative pressure; Russian: ODNT, ОДНТ), assisted by Mike Foale. [Chibis is the Russian below-the-waist reduced-pressure device designed to provide gravity-simulating stress to the body’s cardiovascular/circulatory system. The suit forms an airtight seal around the waist and applies suction to the lower body. The preparatory training generally consists of first imbibing 150-200 milliliters of water or juice, followed by a sequence of progressive regimes of reduced (“negative”) pressure, set at -15, -20, -25, and -30 mmHg (Torr) for five minutes each while shifting from foot to foot at 10-12 steps per minute, while wearing a sphygmomanometer to measure blood pressure. The body’s circulatory system interprets the pressure differential between upper and lower body as a gravity-like force pulling the blood (and other liquids) down. It prepares the body’s orthostatic tolerance (e.g., the Gauer-Henry reflex) after Sasha’s six-month stay in zero-G. Chibis data and biomed cardiovascular readings are recorded. The Chibis suit (not to be confused with the Russian Pinguin suit for spring-loaded body compression, or the Kentavr anti-g suit worn during reentry) is similar to the U.S. LBNP facility (not a suit) used for the first time on Skylab in 1973/74, although it appears to accomplish its purpose quicker.]

– ISS On-Orbit Report: 12 April 2004

It was also time for Salizhan to complete the second of two final 1.5-hr. training sessions in the Chibis ODNT suit as part of his preparations for returning into gravity, after the first session on 7/4. Since there was no telemetry downlink, his vital body readings were again obtained with the Tensoplus sphygmomanometer. A tagup with ground specialists via S-band supported the run, and Leroy Chiao assisted as CMO. [The below-the-waist reduced-pressure device ODNT (US: LBNP, Lower Body Negative Pressure) in the Chibis garment provides gravity-simulating stress to the body’s cardiovascular/circulatory system for reestablishing the body’s orthostatic tolerance (e.g., the Gauer-Henry reflex) after the six-month stay in zero-G. Salizhan’s ODNT protocol today consisted of first drinking 150-200 milliliters of water or juice, followed by a sequence of progressive regimes of reduced ( negative) pressure, set at -20, -25, -30 and -35 mmHg for five minutes each, while shifting from foot to foot at 10-12 steps per minute. The body’s circulatory system interprets the pressure differential between upper and lower body as a gravity-like force pulling the blood (and other liquids) down.]

– ISS On-Orbit Report: 12 April 2005

Kentavr
«Кентавр»

The Kentavr (“Centaur”) is a corset-like garment worn like a pair of shorts. It is tightly-laced and worn during descent to keep blood from pooling in the legs on the return to gravity (similar to a g-suit worn by fighter pilots).

Description from an On-Orbit Report:

Aboard the ISS, the crew worked on the Russian Kentavr (Centaur) garments, doing fit-checks and adjusting them for their individual sizes. The suits are kept in the habitation module of the Soyuz TMA until undock day. The activity was supported by a tagup with ground specialists via S-band. [The Russian Kentavr garment is a protective anti-g suit ensemble to facilitate the return of a long-duration crewmember into the Earth gravity. Consisting of shorts, gaiters, underpants, jersey and socks, it acts as countermeasure for circulatory disturbance, prevents crewmember from overloading during descent and increases orthostatic tolerance during post-flight adaptation. Sizing consists of adjusting lacing on the outer side of the shorts and on the inner side of the gaiters to achieve a tight fit.]

– ISS On-Orbit Report: 14 October 2004

Pingvin-3
«Пингвин-3»

The Pingvin-3 suits are light blue jumpsuits embedded with sewn-in elastic straps which provide resistance loads for the wearer in response to their arm and body movement. This provides exercise for their musculoskeletal system and thus combat the deleterious effects of microgravity. The wearer is to make periodic pedaling leg movements for 5-10 min, 6-8 times per day. The suit is replaced after 45 days of wear.

VELO VB-3
ВЕЛО ВБ-3

The VELO (from the Russian велоэргометр, veloergometr) is a stationary bike/ergometer with a load trainer. The Russian exercise device is set into Zvezda’s floor (under Panel 121). It serves as a multifunction exercise machine, and is used for various Russian fitness tests and medical experiments.

The pedals can be used for hand or foot pedaling. The latter mode is used to condition the arms and shoulders for spacewalks. During hand pedaling, the actual pedal is removed and the hands grip each pedal shaft.

The operator is strapped down to the seat with a harness.

Diagrams (from the Service Module Medical Operations, Book 1, issued by Energiya in 2000):

Gallery

Sergei exercising on the CEVIS

Sergei Krikalyov (ISS-11) on the CEVIS in the Destiny Laboratory.

Yurii Usachyov using the RED

Yurii Usachyov (ISS-2) does squats (for thighs) while strapped down to the RED with a harness in Unity Node 1.

Sergei on the TVIS

Sergei Krikalyov (ISS-11) on the TVIS at the aft end of Zvezda.

Sergei doing rows on the VELO

31 May 2005: Sergei Krikalyov (ISS-11) does arm rows on the VELO (pulling exercise for shoulder and back muscles).

Expedition 4 in Pingvin-3 conditioning suits (NASA)

Expedition 4 in Pingvin-3 countermeasures suits.

Links

Mini-Research Module-1 Rassvet

MIM-1, named Rassvet («Рассвет», “Dawn”), was built using the already-constructed hull of the Science Power Module (NEM). It has two docking units: an active probe-and-drogue one for docking to the nadir port of the Zarya module (with help from the SSRMS), and a passive one for the docking of Soyuz TMA and Progress spacecraft, providing a fourth Russian segment port for these. It has propellant lines that enable a docked Progress to refuel the Zvezda module. Its lifetime is guaranteed for 12 years.

Rassvet was formerly known as the Docking Cargo Module (SGM), Стыковочно Грузовой Модуль; it was manufactured from the residual Dynamic Test Article of the Science Power Platform (NEP), the latter being canceled due to lack of funds. NASA refers to it as MRM-1, Mini Research Module-1.

Rassvet delivery in the U.S. was on 17 December 2009, and it was launched aboard STS-132/ULF-4 on 14 May 2010.

After the docking of STS-132 Atlantis, Rassvet was relocated and docked to the nadir port of the Zarya module using the SRMS and SSRMS on 18 May, the docking ports connecting at 12:19:45 GMT. Hatches between Rassvet and the ISS were opened at 10:52 GMT on 20 May.

Cargoes from EXPRESS Logistics Carrier-3 and ELC4 will be installed onto Rassvet. Cargoes for the future MLM module were delivered on Rassvet, for example: airlock, portable workplace and the ERA manipulator’s spare elbow.

The onboard systems include:

There are five universal workplaces in the pressurized module. Four of them are equipped with the target equipment: glove box, a universal low-temperature thermostat biotechnology, universal high-temperature biotechnology thermostat, vibroprotecting platform. The fifth workstation is equipped with adapters to install scientific equipment (a special pull-out shelves module). More details from an Energiya press release:

Assembly and installation of scientific equipment for a specific task is undertaken directly in the operation of the module of the ISS. The total weight placed in the workplace of scientific equipment is more than 100 kg.

According to a 2010 Roskosmos news item, MIM-1 was quite noisy:

Skvortsov: New Russian Module Rassvet is the noisiest in the ISS, 31/8/2010

The Small Research Module (MIM-1), also known as “Breaking Dawn” and put into operation on July 27, is currently leading in terms of noise produced on board, said the commander of the ISS Alexander Skvortsov in an interview with RIA Novosti.

Questions to the astronaut were sent as part of the action “Mailbox of the ISS”, held from June 18 by the Memorial Museum of Astronautics at the All-Russian Exhibition Center with the support of the press service of Roscosmos.

“There is noise at the station, there is a constant rumble from working devices. You quickly get used to it, and soon you just stop noticing it. Although, for the sake of fairness, I can say that each module has its own noise level, but now the MIM-1 record holder vociferous,” says the commander of the ISS.

Answering the question whether he had to use individual earplugs during sleep, Skvortsov wrote: “I used to sleep without earplugs, now I decided to try – as always, there are pluses and minuses. Undoubtedly – they are quieter, but there is some discomfort, although molded individual earplugs. On earth fittings, it seemed that everything was normal, and weightlessness made adjustments. But I work without them.”

Another Russian cosmonaut Maxim Suraev, who spent half a year on the ISS, also believes that the noise level created by the operating equipment at the station is quite acceptable, and the human body eventually gets used not to perceive it. About this Suraev wrote in his orbital blog. “I must say that the station constantly hum. On Earth, my sensitivity threshold for all frequencies was almost the same. Here, at the frequencies where the station hum goes, my sensitivity dropped. Imagine that the human body adapts so easily It’s not to say that I don’t hear it, but for my ear it’s as if it’s rude, so that I’ve gotten less into my head :),” Maxim notes with satisfaction.

“Of course, there are all sorts of anti-noise things at the station: headphones, earplugs … But neither I nor Jeff (Suraev’s colleague, American astronaut Jeff Williams – Ed.) Use them. Well, look here. The other day, during my sleep the pump began to whistle in the segment. Sometimes it happens, the equipment fails. I heard it in time, and I adjusted everything. And if not, and if there is some serious ‘nestachtka’, but do I sleep here with my ears closed? hear everything,” the ISS flight engineer is confident.

At the same time, the problem of increased noise has existed since the creation of the space station, as noted by almost all cosmonauts. Low-noise fans, developed in TsAGI, will help to partially reduce its level.

The design of the fans allows to reduce the noise level by 5.5 and 8 decibels while maintaining the specified aerodynamic parameters. This is a large indicator, as at the present moment, the reduction of the noise level by one and a half to two decibels is considered to be a significant amount throughout the world.

It is assumed that the use of new low-noise fans TsAGI significantly improve the working conditions of the crews of the ISS. At the same time, new fans create high air pressure at low flow rates.

Full name: МИМ-1: Малый Исследовательский Модуль-1 «Рассвет» / MRM-1: Mini-Research Module-2 “Dawn” / MIM-1: Malnyi Issledovatel’skii Modul’-2 Rassvet

Rassvet: fundamental technical characteristics
Dry weight 4700 kilograms
Module launch mass 5075 kg (11,188 pounds)
Total launch mass 8015 kg (17,760 pounds), including 2940 kilograms (6482 pounds) of cargo (European Robotic Arm for Columbus, airlock for Multipurpose Laboratory Module and a portable workplace) on its internal and exterior stowage locations while in Atlantis’ payload bay, and 1392 kg in the pressurized module
Maximum hull diameter 2.35 meters (7.7 feet)
Hull length between docking assembly planes 6.0 meters (19.7 feet)
Pressurized volume 17.4 cubic meters (614 cubic feet)
Free internal volume 5.5 cubic meters (194.15 cubic feet) (14.5 cubic meters/511.85 cubic feet for storage of cargoes)
Habitable volume 5.85 cubic meters (207 cubic feet)

Diagrams

Gallery

MIM-1 being docked

Rassvet being transferred to its docking port by Canadarm2, 18 May 2010

MIM-1 docked

Rassvet docked, 23 May 2010

Soyuz TMA-19 spacecraft docks to Rassvet

Soyuz TMA-19 spacecraft docks to Rassvet on 28 June 2010

MIM-1 interior

Oleg Skripochka inside Rassvet, 14 December 2010

Links

Updated: 14/4/2019

Mini-Research Module-2 Poisk

MIM-2, named Poisk («Поиск», “Search”), is a second docking module similar to Pirs, and can accommodate both Soyuz and Progress spacecraft with a passive docking port (probe-and-drogue) on its outward-facing end. It will dock to Zvezda’s zenith port. It has two workplaces for scientific equipment on the module’s external surface. It was formerly known as Docking Module-2, Стыковочный Отсек-2.

In his Expedition 20 NASA preflight interview on 6 May 2009, Roman Romanenko gives some details:

Q: According to the plan currently, shortly after your arrival there is a pair of spacewalks planned for Gennady and Mike to make. Tell me about what they’ll be doing outside the station, and what you will be doing inside to support that work.

A: Yes, during our increment there will be a lot of EVA activities; in other words, spacewalks. In addition to two Russian scheduled EVAs, there will be seven or eight EVAs by the shuttle crew members. They will need to perform a lot of tasks. However, the main objective for all EVAs is to outfit the ISS with all those elements and modules and hardware units that will ensure successful operation of a six-person crew on board the ISS. EVAs that will be performed by Gennady and Mike Barratt, those EVAs will also address the tasks of outfitting the Russian segment with the new Mini Research Module #2, delivery of which is scheduled for this year. We’re hoping that we will receive this module during our mission; it is scheduled for delivery at the end of summer, beginning of the fall. It will dock to the Russian segment and Gennady, during his EVA with his U.S. colleague, will have to route cables in order to ensure docking of this module. […]

Q: Another new component for the Russian segment of the space station is due to arrive before the end of the year. It’s called the Mini Research Module 2. Can you describe what that is for us and what that will add to Russian segment operations?

A: I think that this new module will be slightly larger than the Docking Compartment. However, it will provide additional vole for various experiments on the Russian segment. It may also be used as the additional airlock for EVAs, or a connecting module for subsequent addition of a larger, another larger module to the Russian segment. The reason why the name of this new module is Mini Research Module is due to the fact that this new addition to the station will house a number of scientific experiments that will be performed under the Russian space agency science program.

Poiskdelivered 800 kg (1,764 lb) of Orlan spacesuits and life support equipment on its launch to the ISS.

Full name: МИМ-2: Малый Исследовательский Модуль-2 «Поиск» / MRM-2: Mini-Research Module-2 “Search” / MIM-2: Malnyi Issledovatel’skii Modul’-2 Poisk

Poisk: Fundamental technical characteristics
Launch mass 3670 ± 50 kg (8091 ± 110 lb)
Maximum hull diameter 2.550 m (8 ft 4 in)
Hull length between docking assembly planes 4.049 m (13 ft 3 in)
Pressurized volume 14.8 m3 (523 ft3)
Habitable volume 10.7 m3 (380 ft3)
Number of egress hatches (open inward) 2
Egress hatch diameter 1.000 m (3 ft 3 in)
Mass of delivered cargoes up to 1000 kg (2,204 lb)
Manufacturer Energiya
Designation 240GK No 2L
Launch date 10 Nov 2009 at 14:22:04 UTC
Launcher Progress M-SO2 No 302 on a Soyuz-U rocket
Docking date 12 Nov 2009 at 15:41:42 UTC

Diagrams

Gallery

Poisk in orbit

Poisk docked to the ISS, 21 November 2009

MIM-2 propulsion compartment

View of MIM-2 Propulsion Module (PAO) undocking, 7 December 2009

Links

Updated: 14/4/2019

Progress cargo ship variants

The original Progress, numbers 1 to 42, made flights to the space stations Salyut 6, 7 and Mir (one launched as Cosmos-1669 with an antenna system called «Игла», “Needle,” actually making 43 flights). There were 67 flights for the Progress M version, 11 times for the Progress M1 version, 12 times for Progress M-M and three times in special cases (Scientific Laboratory «Гамма», “Gamma” in 1990, Progress M-SO1 in 2001 and Progress M-MIM2 in 2009). The two versions currently in use are the Progress M and M1. Both versions are used to supply the ISS.

The table below (from somewhere in the Novosti Kosmonavtiki forum) lists the variants that have flown.

Progress types
Spaceship
Корабли		 Ship modification
Модификации корабля		 Beginning of operation
Начало эксплуатации		 Launches
Запуски
Progress Original version 1978 43
Progress M First modification 1989 53
Progress M-VDU Second modification 1992 2
Progress M1 Third modification 2000 11
Progress M-SO1 Fourth modification 2001 1
Progress M/M1 Fifth modification 2006 In use

Two comparison tables for the Progress M and M1.

Progress M and M1 performance data
Performance Progress-M Progress M1
Mass, kg
Spaceship Mass 7020-7320 7200-7420
Cargo Dry Mass 2100-2620 2230-2450
Cargo Mass (in cargo module) up to 1800 up to 1800
Rodnik Tanks Water Mass up to 420
Propellant Mass up to 1150 up to 1950
Orbital Module Gas Mass up to 50 up to 40
Orbit Parameters
Height, km up to 400 up to 460
Inclination, deg 51.6 51.6
Overall Dimensions, mm
Spaceship Maximum Length 7230 7230
Spaceship Maximum Diameter 2720 2720
Equipment Bay Diameter 2100 2100
Solar Batteries Span 10,700 10,700
Cargo Module Length 2406 2406
Cargo Module Overall Diameter 2200 2200
Docking Hatch Diameter 800 800
Three Additional Hatches Diameter 470 470
Delivered/Disposal Cargo Dimensions, mm
Rectangle Diameter and Diagonal less than 750 less than 750
Length 1500 1500
Delivered/Disposal Cargo Mass, kg
Fixed on Frames up to 200 up to 200
Packed in Containers up to 50 up to 50
Disposal Cargo Total Mass, kg
In Cargo Module up to 1500 up to 1500
Liquid Waste Mass up to 420
Progress payloads
Category Progress M Progress M-1
Total payload limit 2350 kg 2230-3200 kg
Maximum pressurized (dry) cargo 1800 kg 1800 kg
Maximum water 420 kg up to 300 kg in cargo module
Maximum air or oxygen 50 kg 40 kg
Maximum propellant for refuelling 850 kg 1700 kg (up to 1950 kg max)
Propellant surplus available to the Station 250 kg 185-250 kg
Amount of rubbish disposal in the Cargo Module 1000-1600 kg 1000-1600 kg
Waste water 400 kg In Cargo Module
Cargo volume 6.6 m³ 6.6m³
Main modifications of Progress transport cargo spacecraft
Name: Progress Progress-M Progress-M1
Designation: 7K-TG 7K-TGM 7K-TGM1
Maiden launch: 20 Jan 1978 23 Aug 1989 1 Feb, 2000
Total launched: 43 (series is closed in 1990) 48 (on April 2004) 11 (on April 2004)
Key features: Automated TKG, developed on the basis of Soyuz manned spacecraft Automated TKG, with unified main systems as for Soyuz-TM manned spacecraft. Presence of solar panel increases margin of self-sufficiency. Added a teleoperator mode of control from board of orbital station (TORU) Automated TKG, specially modified to deliver fuel components to the ISS
Total mass of delivered payload, kg: up to 2300 up to 2620 up to 2450
Limit mass for components, kg
in cargo compartment: up to 1400 up to 1800 up to 1800
propellant components: up to 870 up to 1150 up to 1950
gas: up to 50 up to 50 up to 40
water:: up to 420 up to 420 up to 220

Variants

Original Progress

The first Progress, Progress 1, launched on 20 January 1978 to Salyut 6. The Progress relied on internal batteries for power, not solar panels.

Progress M

The modernized Progress M first launched on 23 August 1989 to Mir. The modernization was primarily of the flight control systems.

Progress M-1

The Progress M-1 version was a modified version that enabled the delivery of more fuel to the ISS for the orbital boosting and maneuvering systems. The tanks were fitted into the middle section while the water tanks were moved into the front Cargo Module. The extra fuel means less water can be carried, though:

Since the shuttle fuel cells generate water as a byproduct of electricity generation, the space shuttle was to deliver all water to ISS, hence the development of the Progress M-1 which replaced the water tanks with additional fuel. After the Columbia accident, Russia reverted to the Progress M to deliver water to ISS while the shuttle fleet was grounded. Perhaps they could have reverted to the M-1 after return-to-flight, but the announcement of shuttle retirement in 2010 has understandably made them reluctant to do so.

– NSF forum

The M-1 first launched on 1 February 2000 to the International Space Station. It also has a new digital flight control system and new version of the Kurs automated rendezvous & docking system (Kurs-MM). Twelve tanks filled with a nitrogen-oxygen mix for the Station’s atmosphere are fitted around the outside, between the Refuelling and Propellant modules.

Progress MSO-1

The Progress M-SO1 version was a specially-modified version used to launch the Pirs docking module on 14 September 2001. The Pirs module replaced the standard cargo and fuel sections of the Progress. (SO, Стыковочный Отсек, Docking Module.)

Progress M-VDU

The Progress M-VDU version was a specially-modified version of the Progress-M used twice to launch the VDU propulsion unit to the Mir Space Station. The VDU module replaced the standard fuel section (OKD). On 15 August 1992 Progress M-14 (serial 209) was launched with the first VDU for installation on the end of the Sofora girder on the Kvant-1 module. The second VDU was launched with Progress M-38 (serial 238) on 14 March 1998 as a replacement for the old unit. (ВДУ, Выносная Двигательная Установка – VDU, Vynosnaya Dvigatel’naya Ustanovka, External Engine Unit) (Thanks to Marcel Stuij for info!)

Progress M-XXM

The designation Progress M-XXM (where XX = 01, 02, 03 etc.) has been chosen for Progress M cargo ships with a new onboard computer, TsVM-101, a digital telemetry system. Currently the Progress M cargo ships use an old onboard computer, Argon-16. Progress M-01M (No. 401) launched on 26 November 2008.

Progress M-15M launched on 20 April 2012 with a new Kurs-NA (NA, НА – новая активная, Novaya Aktivnaya, New Active) docking system that featured upgraded electronics and used less power; it was developed by the Research Institute of Precision Instruments (NII TP, НИИ ТП ).

Progress MS

This variant is to test various components of the modified Soyuz TMA-MS spaceship before the latter’s flight in 2016. The first in the series, Progress MS-01, was launched on a Soyuz-2-1a rocket on 21 December 2015.

Numbering

The Progress numbering system is somewhat complex. 11F615A55 is the article number and 7K-TGM is the manufacturer’s designation. The ships are also given serial numbers:

(Via Rui Barbosa at NASASpaceflight.com)

Updated: 23/12/2015

Soyuz ASU

Some information about the Soyuz ASU, toilet – a somewhat indelicate but necessary topic!

The waste disposal system functions similarly to the ISS toilet in the Russian segment – using a vacuum system – though everything is necessarily more compact. It resides in the Soyuz Orbital Module. The descriptions below are derived from those at Charles Simonyi’s site (I can’t link to the relevant pages directly as it is a Flash-animated site – grrr!).

For urination (with the control panel switch set to #1) a replaceable funnel is used. The waste is sucked into a collection tank (there are ten in the module), and the air circulates through a charcoal filter before being sent back into the cabin. According to this post at CollectSPACE.com, “women use a sanitary-napkin-type pad which absorbs fluid,” which doesn’t sound too appealing! If the electric air pump fails, a device with a rubber-bulb handpump serves as a backup.

For defecation (switch set to #2), a disposable bag is put into a container, which has an air suction tube connected to the container (the airflow goes through the bag and a charcoal filter). A carton cover needs to be removed from the bag before insertion; it contains some sanitizing chemicals and toilet paper (the latter is also removed). The user positions the device against their posterior. After finishing, a string around the edge of the bag snaps a rolled rubber cover into place, hermetically sealing the contents. After securely tying it with rubber ties (similar to the ones used to tie up the lining of the Sokol spacesuit), the bag insert is removed and put into another rubberized bag. This is placed into yet another bag, hermetically sealed and placed in a waste container with other rubbish (it will all burn up when the Orbital Module is discarded upon descent).

SoyCOM Manual: Ассенизационно-Санитарная Установка (АСУ) (Waste Management System)

АСУ function is collection, isolation and stowage of the crew’s physiological wastes.

АСУ composition:

In the БО:

In the СА:

АСУ Technical Characteristics:

Diagrams & photo links

Some photos of the Soyuz toilet at Skorina.com: 03.24 20Jun00; 03.25 20Jun00; 05.06 21Jun00.

The following diagrams are from « Когда невесомость в тягость, о чем молчат космонавты» (“When weightlessness is a burden, about which the cosmonauts keep silent”), Russian Popular Mechanics, June 2006 – on the development of Russian space toilets. (Thanks to “Captain David” for finding this!)

Gallery

Soyuz loo (African in Space)

“This charming layout shows a Soyuz space toilet. Primitive, but apparently quite effective. In general the crews try not to have to use the solid waste receptacle on trips to and back from the ISS.”

Soyuz toilet components (Charles in Space)

Soyuz toilet components (Charles in Space)

Soyuz console

Fighter jet and spaceship cockpits seem to fascinate me and that of the Soyuz is no exception; unfortunately there are no detailed diagrams or manuals publically-available on the Internet that I know of!

The following diagrams are ones I have collected from various places, and are the best I can do at the moment.

The Soyuz TM Information Display System is called the “Neptune,” «Нептун»; for the TMA it is the Neptune ME. Some of the buttons and controls on the console can’t be reached without a stick to poke at them! The stick is called Указател, Ukazatel, “Pointer”. (The Space Shuttle equvalent was nicknamed the “Swizzle Stick” – both can be seen in a Twitpic by Chris Hadfield.)

The computer used on the Soyuz is called Argon, «Аргон». The version on the TMA is the Argon-16. From TMA-13 a new computer, the TsVM-101, ЦВМ-101, will be used.

Some of the Russian translations below are uncertain or unclear (I couldn’t find exact definitions for them).

Soyuz

Soyuz 7K console

SOI “Sirius” for the Soyuz 7K and Soyuz A8 spaceships

  1. Command-alarm devices.
  2. Navigation indicator.
  3. Console alarm.
  4. Cylinder pressure indicator.
  5. Digital information input unit.
  6. Program controls indicator.
  7. Combined electronic indicator.
  8. Distance and speed indicator.
  9. Time.
  10. Cabin parameters indicator.
  11. Pressure and electric current indicator.

СОИ «Сириус» кораблей – Союз-7К», Союз-А8»

  1. Командно-сигнальные устройства.
  2. Навигационный индикатор.
  3. Табло сигнальное.
  4. Индикатор давления в баллонах.
  5. Блок ввода цифровой информации.
  6. Индикатор контроля программ.
  7. Комбинированный электронный индикатор.
  8. Индикатор расстояния и скорости.
  9. Часы.
  10. Индикатор параметров кабины.
  11. Индикатор напряжения и тока.

Soyuz T

Soyuz T console

Descent module console SOI “Neptune” for the Soyuz T spaceship

  1. Voltage and current indicator.
  2. Indicator and manual information input unit for the onboard computer.
  3. KEI – Integrated? Electronic Indicator. (Meaning uncertain for комбини-рованный)
  4. Navigation position indicator.
  5. Command-alarm panels with matrix selection of the control objects.
  6. KEI signal parameter unit.
  7. Important commands buttons.
  8. Alarm panels.
  9. Fuel consumption indicator.
  10. Clock.

Пульт спускаемого аппарата СОИ «Нептун» кораблей «Союз Т»

  1. Индикатор напряжения и тока.
  2. Индикатор и пульт ручного ввода информации в ЭВМ.
  3. КЭИ – комбини-рованный электронный индикатор.
  4. Навигационный индикатор.
  5. Командно-сигнальные пульты с матричным избиранием объектов управления.
  6. Блок вызова параметров на КЭИ.
  7. Кнопки особоважных команд.
  8. Сигнальные табло.
  9. Счетчик расхода топлива.
  10. Часы.

Soyuz TM

Soyuz TM console

The SOI “Neptune” console for the Soyuz TM Descent Module is the same as for the Soyuz T, but the KEI dial has been replaced by an electronic display. The clock is electronic.

Пульт спускаемого аппарата СОИ «Нептун» кораблей «Союз-ТМ». Приборы те же, что на рис. «Союз Т», кроме часов и КЭИ. КЭИ без шкального устройства Шкалы формируются электронным способом. Часы электронные.

Soyuz TMA

Soyuz TMA console

Descent module PSA console SOI “Neptune” for the Soyuz TMA spaceship

  1. INPU command unit.
  2. Color VGA monitor.
  3. Alarm and safety devices (circuit breakers).
  4. Voltage meter.
  5. Sokol suit fans.
  6. Status indicators.
  7. Monochrome VGA monitor.
  8. Critical command buttons.

Пульт ПСА спускаемого аппарата СОИ «Нептун» корабля «Союз ТМА»

  1. Блок управления маркером.
  2. Цветной VGA монитор.
  3. Предохранители и сигнализация.
  4. Индикатор напряжения.
  5. Тумблеры вентиляторов.
  6. Табло.
  7. Монохромный VGA-монитор.
  8. Кнопки особоважных команд.

Details from a page at the manufacturer’s site:

Configuration

Specifications

Diagrams

Links

Soyuz launch escape system

The Soyuz launch escape system has the acronym САС, SAS (Система Аварийного Спасения, Sistema Avariynogo Spaseniya) and is activated should anything go wrong on the launch pad, or on the ride into orbit. It is attached to the shroud covering the Soyuz spaceship during launch. The main events that would trigger the system during launch are loss of control, premature booster stage separation, loss of pressure in the combustion chambers, lack of velocity and loss of thrust.

The system can also be triggered from the ground by remote radio control (КРЛ, Командная Радиолиния, Komandnaya Radioliniya – Command Radio-Line). The command is sent from the Kvant ground control station at Site 23, 30 kilometers away from the Soyuz launch site.

The SAS is activated and ready from 15 minutes before launch to 157 seconds from launch. On activation, three floating struts on the payload fairing fixate to the lower structural ring of the Soyuz Descent Module to transfer loads from the payload fairing. The main escape motors fire for 2-6 seconds, taking with them the top two sections of the Soyuz spaceship (Habitation and Descent Modules; the Instrumentation Module remains with the rest of the rocket). The rockets can lift the SAS to a height of 1-1.5 kilometers from the ground. The Descent Module is then disconnected from the fairing, a separation motor fires and the Descent Module falls out of the bottom of the fairing, deploys its parachute and lands in the normal manner.

This extract from Mir Hardware Heritage describes the only time the SAS has been used, so far:

Refer to figure 1-29. Shortly before liftoff, fuel spilled around the base of the Soyuz launch vehicle and caught fire. Launch control activated the escape system, but the control cables had already burned. The crew could not activate or control the escape system, but 20 sec later, ground control was able to activate the escape system by radio command. By this time the booster was engulfed in flames. Explosive bolts fired to separate the descent module from the service module and the upper launch shroud from the lower. Then the escape system motor fired, dragging the orbital module and descent module, encased within the upper shroud, free of the booster at 14 to 17 g’s of acceleration. Acceleration lasted 5 sec. Seconds after the escape system activated, the booster exploded, destroying the launch complex (which was, incidentally, the one used to launch Sputnik 1 and Vostok 1). Four paddle-shaped stabilizers on the outside of the shroud opened. The descent module separated from the orbital module at an altitude of 650 m, and dropped free of the shroud. It discarded its heat shield, exposing the solid-fuelled land landing rockets, and deployed a fast-opening emergency parachute. Landing occurred about 4 km from the launch pad. The aborted mission is often called Soyuz T-10a in the West. This was the last failed attempt to date to reach a space station to date.

Soyuz abort sequence

An account from Leaving Earth by Robert Zimmerman:

It was not to be. Ninety seconds before blast-off, with Titov and Strekalov waiting at the top of their fully-fueled Soyuz rocket, a fuel valve at the base of the rocket malfunctioned, opening and spilling fuel uncontrollably onto the launchpad. A fire broke out and flames engulfed the rocket with its 180 tons of very flammable fuel. At that moment, the automatic launch-escape system should had kicked in, executing the following steps: First, explosive bolts fire, flinging the Soyuz T capsule free of the three-stage rocket. One second later, solid-fuel engines in a tower attached to the top of the capsule ignite, lifting the Soyuz T orbital module and descent module away and clear. Five seconds after that, more explosive bolts fire to separate the manned descent module from everything else. Its parachutes then release and its retro-rockets fire, slowing the capsule enough for a safe landing.

The automatic launch-escape system did not kick in, however. The fire had burned the system’s wiring, preventing it from being activated automatically. Feeling strange vibrations and seeing black smoke and yellow flames outside their window, Titov and Strekalov tried to fire the launch-escape system manually, only to get no response. To fire the escape system manually from mission control required each of two different operators, located in two separate rooms, to press separate buttons at the same time. With flames rising from the launchpad and the entire rocket already leaning 20 degrees to the side, controllers scrambled madly to get the system to free.

Just 10 seconds after the flames first appeared, controllers miraculously managed to somehow do this, activating the escape system and throwing Titov, Strekalov and the Soyuz T capsule more than 3000 feet into the air. For five seconds the emergency engines fired, subjecting the two men to forces exceeding 15 g’s. Then the engines cut off, the descent module separated, and its parachutes unfolded.

At that moment, the entire rocket and launchpad exploded. The blast was so intense that the capsule, three miles away, was thrown sideways, and launchpad workers in underground bunkers felt the pressure wave.

Strekalov and Titov landed safely, their capsule hitting the ground with a hard bump that shook both men up but did them no damage. Rescuers quickly pulled them from the capsule, then gave them a glass of vodka to calm their nerves as everyone watched the nearby launchpad crumble in flames and clouds of smoke. It took 20 hours to put the fires out.

Soyuz abort parameters
Breakout altitude in the event of launch failure 850 meters
Breakout distance in the event of launch failure 110 m
G-load on humans
  • during EDS operations, no more than: 10 g
  • in emergency 400 seconds into the mission: 21 (K = 0)
Initial mass of separating nose section, not more than 7635 kg
Total EDS thruster burns 123 TF-S
Maximum EDS thruster propulsion unit thrust 76 TF

SoyCOM: 3.20. Система Аварийного Спасения (САС) (Launch Escape System)

CAC system purpose and composition

The CAC System is designed for bringing the crew modules away from the failed Launch Vehicle and providing conditions for guarantied operation of the landing aids while at the launch site and in the orbit injection phase.

The system is fully automatic. In case of the Launch Vehicle failure the “АВАРИЯ НОСИТЕЛЯ” ( Launch Vehicle Failure) red light illuminates (ТСЭ-3) and also the Central Light goes ON and the intermittent audio signal sounds.

Having received these signals the crew reports to the Launch Control and prepares to withstand the accelerations associated with the launch escape procedures.

General CAC System design is shown in Fig.1.

The CAC System consists of:

Двигательная Установка САС (ДУ САС) (CAC Propulsion System)

The ДУ САС is an active aid which enables the spacecraft rescued part to escape in case of the Launch Vehicle failure both at the launch site and in the orbit injection phase.

The ДУ САС consists of:

The ЦРД engine is designed for the spacecraft crew module (БО-СА) escape from the failed Launch Vehicle and climb up to the altitude necessary for the parachute system operation in case of emergency at the launch site or in launch vicinity conditions.

The УРД thrusters are designed for executing the preset spacecraft crew module escape trajectory in case of emergency at the launch site or in the vicinity of the launch site.

The РДР thrusters are designed for executing the evasive trajectory of the CAC System after its nominal jettison in the spacecraft orbit injection phase. The РДР thrusters are also used to take the Cap+БО cluster away from the CA at the climb portion of the spacecraft rescued part launch escape trajectory.

Apart from the ДУ САС Propulsion System the following thrusters are located on the Aerodynamic Cap:

The РДГ thrusters are designed for raising the climb altitude of the spacecraft rescued part in case of emergency in launch vicinity conditions and also for taking the rescued part away in the orbit injection phase after the ЦРД nominal jettison and prior to the Cap jettison.

The ДСС thrusters are designed for taking the Cap sections away from the spacecraft during its nominal jettison procedure in the orbit injection phase.

Crew Module Aerodynamic Cap

The Crew Module Aerodynamic Cap is the structural base for the escaping crew modules.

CAC System Automatic Equipment

The CAC Automatic Equipment is designed for joint operation with the spacecraft and the Launch Vehicle systems in generating signals and executing commands for the crew module escape from the failed Launch Vehicle in case of emergency at the launch site or in the orbit injection flight phase.

CAC system operational procedure

The CAC System total operational period is subdivided into six portions:

  1. From the moment of the “Взведение САС” (CAC arming) command for configuring the CAC System for operation up to the “КП” (контакт подъема – Lift-Off Contact).
  2. From the “КП” up to 20 seconds of flight elapsed time.
  3. From the FET 20 s up to the ДУ САС jettison programmed time.
  4. From the ДУ САС programmed jettison up to the Cap (ГО) jettison.
  5. From the ГО programmed jettison up to the “ПО” (предварительное отделение – preliminary separation) command.
  6. From the “ПО” command up to the Launch Vehicle 3rd stage Propulsion System Shut Off command. First Portion Procedure

In this CAC System operational period portion the emergency signal can be issued only by the Launch Director via the КРЛ system from the Launch Control vault.

On receiving the “Авария” (Emergency) signal the following commands are issued:

In 1.8 s after the “Авария” signal is issued the УРД thrusters are fired under the program control which depends on the wind direction and the location of the launch facilities.

In 4 s after the “Авария” the РДГ thrusters are fired.

At the escape trajectory peak the САС Automatic Equipment issues commands:

After the ВСК jettison the a РДР thruster is fired and carries the Cap+БО cluster away from the СА so as to prevent their collision. At the preset time moment the parachute system is put to operation and follows a reduced time program.

Second Portion Procedure

This portion features low flight altitudes. So the failed Launch Vehicle Propulsion System is not cut off to carry the Launch Vehicle away from the launch facilities as far as possible. The parachute system operates under the control of reduced time programs.

Third Portion Procedure

When the “Авария” signal arrives the following commands are issued:

  1. The Launch Vehicle Propulsion System emergency ignition;
  2. Execution of all the commands according to the First portion program of the CAC operation with exceptions:
    • only the first ЦРД chamber is ignited (the altitude clearance is sufficient for the КСП complex operation;
    • the РДГ is not fired (altitude sufficient for the КСП operation);
    • only one УРД thruster is burnt, the one located in plane II.

At the preset moment the КСП Complex is put to operation.

Fourth Portion Procedure

This portion’s peculiar feature consists in using the РДГ thrusters as active aid for the crew module escape. On the “Авария” signal the spacecraft is separated at the СА-ПАО interface and two РДГ thrusters are ignited. In 0,32 s after the “Авария” command the second РДГ thruster group is ignited to take the crew modules away from the failed Launch Vehicle trajectory. According to the preset program the CAC automatic equipment issues commands for the ВСК jettison and for the СА/БО separation.

At the preset moment the КСП Complex is put to operation following the nominal time program.

Fifth Portion Procedure

There are no active aids used in this portion for the crew module evasive maneuver away from the failed Launch Vehicle. So the nominal spacecraft separation aids are employed. On the “Авария” signal the САС automatic equipment issues commands for the Launch Vehicle Propulsion System emergency cut off and for the spacecraft crew module nominal separation. The КСП operation follows the nominal time program.

Sixth Portion Procedure

It is this portion’s peculiarity, that in case of emergency separation the spacecraft injection to off-nominal orbits is possible. So based on the long duration (>30 min) crew life support requirement for the offnominal orbit flight the crew rescue is executed within the integrated spacecraft. On the “Авария” signal the CAC automatic equipment translate command for the spacecraft nominal separation from the Launch Vehicle 3rd stage. The separation is accomplished followed by the spacecraft descent. The integrated spacecraft separation is executed nominally at the atmosphere reentry. The spacecraft landing aids operate on the nominal program.

Fig. 1. CAC System Diagram:

  1. Stabilizer.
  2. I-III, II-IV – Stabilization Planes.
  3. View A:
    • БГ – Balance Weight;
    • УРД – Attitude Control Thrusters;
    • РДР – Separation Thrusters;
    • ДУ САС – CAC Propulsion System;
    • ЦРД – Central Rocket Engine;
    • ГО – Aerodynamic Cap;
    • ДСС – Section Jettison Thrusters;
    • ВО – Upper Support;
    • РДГ – Cap Thrusters;
    • БО – Habitable (Crew Resting) Module;
    • СА – Descent Module;
    • НО – Lower Support;
    • ВСК – Cosmonaut Visual System.

Diagrams

Gallery

Soyuz escape tower (NASA)

Closeup of Soyuz rocket launch escape tower.

Links

Soyuz features

On this page are described a few features of the Soyuz spaceship that are too brief to have their own dedicated pages.

Cost

From ESA’s News From Moscow newsletter, Issue 7, 2005:

The cost of Soyuz manned ships for NASA, in case the United States decides to buy them from Russia for safety insurance of the ISS crews, may come up to 400 million rubles (~14.5 million at $1=R27.7 rate), the Russian Space Agency chief Anatoly Perminov said in the RIA Novosti interview.

In Russia a Soyuz costs about 400 million rubles plus the same price of its launch vehicle, which totals 800 million rubles. “For the United States the price will be about that,” Perminov noted.

Docking system

From the Mir Hardware Heritage PDF document by David Portree (in NASA’s Shuttle-Mir history):

Soyuz internal transfer docking unit. This system [was used] for docking spacecraft to Mir. The active craft inserts its probe into the space station receiving cone. The probe tip catches on latches in the socket at the apex of the cone. Motors then draw the two spacecraft together. Latches in the docking collars catch, and motors close them. Fluid, gas, and electrical connections are established through the collars. After the cosmonauts are certain the seal is airtight, they remove the probe and drogue units, forming a tunnel between spacecraft and station. At undocking, four spring push rods drive the spacecraft apart. If the latches fail to retract, the spacecraft can fire pyrotechnic bolts to detach from the station.

The Soyuz TMA uses the same system for ISS dockings.

Soyuz docking system diagram

Kazbek-U seat fittings

Each cosmonaut has their own moulded seat liner fitted and made for them before the mission. These need to be swapped over with the returning crew’s during a crew changeover mission. Expedition crews on long missions also need to do periodic fit checks (as there is no gravity to compress their intervertebral disks, these expand, also stretching the muscles in their backs and increasing their height by a few centimeters). From the 7 July 2004 On-Orbit Report:

The two crewmembers conducted the standard fit check of the “Kazbeks,” the contoured shock absorbing seats in the Soyuz 8S descent capsule (SA). This required them to don their Sokol pressure suits, get in their seats and use a ruler to measure the gap between the top of the head and the top edge of the structure facing the head. The results were reported to TsUP. Kazbek-U couches are designed to withstand g-loads during launch and orbital insertion as well as during reentry and brake-rocket-assisted landing. Each seat has two positions: cocked (armed) and non-cocked. In the cocked position, they are raised to allow the shock absorbers to function during touchdown. The fit check assures that the crewmember whose body gains in length during longer-term stay in zero-G, will still be adequately protected by the seat liners for their touchdown in Kazakhstan.

Simulators

As listed in Simulators of manned spacecrafts at GCTC at NASASpaceflight.com, the simulators are:

The TDK-7ST Simulator is intended for preparation of crewmen for Soyuz control at all stages of flight in regular modes and emergencies with imitation of work of all onboard systems.

The Don-Soyuz Simulator is intended for training of hand control of Soyuz in following modes: rendezvous, approach and docking with ISS and its modules; approach without Kurs radio engineering system of rendezvous with radar.

The Teleoperator Simulator is intended for preparation of cosmonauts on manual remote piloting mode TORU of approach and docking of Progress cargo ships and modules with ISS, and monitoring of ESA’s ATV docking.

Two views of the Simulator Hall, December 2009: 1, 2.

Ugly Posadky

Each day on orbit, a “Form 14” is radiogrammed up to the crew with the Ugly Posadky, угли посадкы, landing angles, for that day’s Soyuz de-orbit opportunities, in case the crew have to make an emergency evacuation and thus need the co-ordinates for re-entry. The times are printed in six-figure groups of hours, minutes and seconds. During these times the Soyuz can safely re-enter the atmosphere at a predetermined angle; too steep an angle and the capsule will burn up; too shallow and it will bounce off the atmosphere and head off into the void.

From 10 August 2004 On-Orbit Report:

Padalka and Fincke had three hours set aside to conduct the Soyuz emergency descent (срочный спуск, srochnyi spusk) training exercise, standard procedure for each crew depending on the Soyuz as a CRV (crew rescue vehicle). The exercise, which strictly forbids any command activation (except for switching the Soyuz InPU display), was supported by a tagup with ground experts at TsUP/Moscow via U.S. S-band. [The training session included a review of the pertinent ODF (operational data files), specifically the books on Soyuz Insertion & Descent Procedures, Emergency (Rapid) Descents, and Off-Nominal Situation Procedures.]

Soyuz landing profile

In contrast to the two-day journey to the ISS, a Soyuz undocking and landing only takes approximately 3.5 hours. Only the Descent Module (SA, СА) makes it to Earth as the other two modules are discarded enroute – the Orbital Module (BO, БО) is released about three hours after undocking, and the Instrumentation/Propulsion Module (PAO, ПАО) is discarded at the same time, after it has performed the deorbit burn. The SA has a secondary guidance, navigation and control system that enables the crew to retain maneuverability. The usual landing zone for a nominal landing is in central Kazakhstan, near the town of Arkhalyk.

Timeline

Soyuz undocking & landing timeline
Undocking −00:00 minutes; landing −03:23:00 hours Separation command to begin opening hooks and latches, which hold the Soyuz spacecraft to a docking port on the Space Station
Undocking +03:00; landing −03:20:00 Hooks opened. Soyuz begins physical separation from the Pirs docking compartment at 0.1 meters per second
Undocking +06:00; landing −03:17:00 A 15-second separation burn when the Soyuz is about 20 meters from the Station
Undocking +02:29; landing −00:54:00 When the Soyuz is at a distance of about 19 km from the ISS, the engines fire for a 4-minute, 21-second deorbit burn
Undocking +02:57; landing −00:26 The unoccupied Orbital Module separates from the Descent Module and burns up upon re-entry into the atmosphere
Undocking +03:00; landing −00:23 The Soyuz reaches Entry Interface – 121,920 meters in altitude – 31 minutes after the deorbit burn
Undocking +03:08; landing −00:15 Parachutes are commanded to deploy. Two Pilot Parachutes are deployed, the second of which extracts the Drogue Chute. The Drogue slows the spacecraft’s descent from a rate of 230 meters per second to 80 meters per second.

The Main Parachute is then released. It slows the Soyuz to a descent rate of 7.2 meters per second. First, its harnesses allow the Soyuz to descend at an angle of 30 degrees to expel heat, then it shifts the Soyuz to a straight vertical descent.
Landing −00:02 Six Soft Landing Engines fire to slow the vehicle’s descent rate to 1.5 meters per second just 0.8 meters above the ground
Undocking +03:23 Soyuz lands

Below are descriptions of Soyuz landings, from various sources.

Events sequence

What will the Soyuz TMA-2/6S crew (Expedition 7 + Pedro Duque) encounter during reentry/descent?

On descent day (10/27)

Special attention will be paid to the need for careful donning of the medical belt with sensors and securing tight contact between sensors and body.

During preparation for descent, before atmosphere reentry, the crew should settle down comfortably in the seat, fasten the belts, securing tight contact between body and the seat liner in the couch.

During de-orbit

Dust particles starting to sink in the Descent Module cabin is the first indication of atmosphere reentry and beginning of G-load effect. From that time on, special attention is required as the loads increase rapidly.

Under G-load effect during atmosphere reentry the crew can expect the following sensations:

Sensation of G-load pressure on the body, “burden in the body,” labored breathing and speech. These are normal sensations, and the advice is to “take them coolly”. In case of the feeling of a “lump in the throat,” this is no cause to “be nervous”. This is frequent and should not be fought. Best is to “try not to swallow and talk at this moment”. Crew should check vision and, if any disturbances occur, create additional tension of abdominal pressure and leg muscles (strain abdomen by pulling in), in addition to the “Kentavr” anti-G suit.

During deployment of drogue and prime parachutes the impact accelerations will be perceived as a “strong snatch”. No reason to become concerned about this but one should be prepared that during the parachutes deployment and change of prime parachute to symmetrical suspension swinging and spinning motion of the Descent Module occurs, which involves vestibular (middle ear) irritations.

It is important to tighten restrain system to fasten pelvis and pectoral arch. Vestibular irritation can occur in the form of different referred sensations such as vertigo, hyperhidrosis, postural illusions, general discomfort and nausea. To prevent vestibular irritation the crew should “limit head movement and eyes movement,” as well as fix their sight on motionless objects.

Just before the landing (softened by six small rocket engines behind the heat shield): Crew should be prepared for the vehicle impact with the ground, with their bodies fixed along the surface of the seat liner in advance. “Special attention should be paid to arm fixation to avoid the elbow and hand squat”.

After landing

Crew should not get up quickly from their seats to leave the Descent Module. They are advised to stay in the couch for several minutes and only then stand up. In doing that, they should limit head and eyes movement and avoid excessive motions, proceeding slowly. They and their body should not take up Earth gravity in the upright position too quickly.

– Source: 17 October 2003 On-Orbit Status Report.

Undocking events

At the ISS, hatches were closed at 1:45 p.m. EDT [U.S. Eastern Daylight Time = UTC −4 hours] and tunnel leak checks performed at 2:05 p.m. With that, the return to Earth of Soyuz TMA-3/7S with Michael Foale, Alexander Kaleri & André Kuipers is ready to proceed along the following event sequence (all times EDT):

– Source: 29 April 2004 On-Orbit Status Report.

If undocking from the nadir port of Pirs, the ISS is maneuvered to the Y-axis in the Velocity Vector position (Zvezda pointing downwards; the Truss parallel with the Earth) – see Motion control & navigation.

Descent modes

There are 3 different types of descent profiles for the Soyuz. The normal type of landing is a controlled descent, where the automation software constantly orients the descent vehicle by its flat lower part to the Earth, ensuring lift due to the incidental airflow, and also inflicting minimum overloads on the crew up to 4 gravities. If for whatever reason the automation fails (as has happened in the TMA series to date with Soyuz TMA-1, TMA-10 and TMA-11) a backup program prompts the capsule to enter on a shorter and more severe ballistic trajectory. The capsule is rotated around its axis to mimimize the g-forces on the crew (it would otherwise fall like a stone and possibly kill them), though they still experience up to 8.5 g’s.

The descriptions below have been taken from the SoyCOM Manual.

Automatically-Controlled Descent
Автоматический Управляемый Спуск

The AUS (Avtomaticheskii Upravlyaemyi Spusk) mode is the nominal and preferred descent mode, where the spacecraft lands in a preselected landing area. The crew input the trajectory before descent, and the onboard computer takes care of the actual descent.

The spacecraft/station undocking occurs 1.5 revolutions prior to the engine fire. The spacecraft undocks and the spring pushers accelerating the spacecraft up to the velocity of 0.12-0.15 m/s. When the separation range reaches the value of ρ=20-25 m the ДПО-Б, DPO-B thrusters are fired for 8 s accelerating the separation range rate up to 0.5 m/s. In 1.5 revolutions the spacecraft is above and behind the ISS.

Soyuz TMA-8 nominal descent g-profile (September 29, 2006) – the gravitational forces the crew experience on the way down (via NASASpaceflight.com forum):

Soyuz descent profile (TMA-8)
Beginning of deorbit burn (00:23:53 UTC, 353.5 km, 7.397 km/sec) 0g;
Ending of deorbit burn (00:28:12 UTC, 341.9 km, 7.298 km/sec) 0.05g;
Separation of modules (00:47:31 UTC, 140.1 km, 7.545 km/sec) 0g;
Entry into atmosphere (00:50:25 UTC, 102.3 km, 7.591 km/sec) 0g;
Beginning of computer control (00:52:10 UTC, 80.3 km, 7.594 km/sec) 0.09g;
Maximum g-load (00:57:01 UTC, 33.2 km, 1.964 km/sec) 3.96g;
Command of parachute deploying (00:58:54 UTC, 10.8 km, 213 m/sec) 1.17g;
Landing (01:13:21 UTC, 0 m, 0 m/sec) 1g

Manually-Controlled Descent
Ручное Управление Спуском

The crew can transfer to the RUS (Ruchnoe Upravlenie Spuskom) mode from the AUS mode anytime during the autonomous flight of the SA, Descent Module. Transfer to the RUS mode is irreversible. In manually-controlled descent the cosmonaut using the RUS Handle buttons issues commands for the basic roll angle decrements of 15 degrees each, the maximal possible decrement being 45 degrees. In case of the attitude control equipment sensor failure the RUS mode is impossible.

Ballistic Descent
Баллистический Спуск

The BS (Ballisticheskii Spusk) is the descent with the average-integral zero lift. The BS is a backup descent mode used in case of the RUS mode failure or “nominally” is most emergency descent modes. However this mode, just like the AUS mode, can be selected in advance or can be transferred to from the controlled descent procedure in case off-nominal deviation occurs in the SA or its system operation. The latter case is called the “fall into БС”.

The ballistic descent can be executed in case of the descent control system failures resulting in loss of the spacecraft or the SA attitude control, failures in the descent reaction control system (the SA attitude control thrusters) etc. In all such cases the SA is driven into rotation about its velocity axis Oxv with the rate of ω.x=12.5 degr./s. The BS trajectory mainly features the atmosphere part range decrease by approximately 400 km with respect to the controlled descent and also the axial acceleration increase up to n.x=8.5 g.

In case of a failure in the primary equipment set used in the ballistic descent, transfer to the backup ballistic mode (BSP – Баллистический Спуск Резервный, Ballisticheskii Spusk Rezervnyi) is executed.

Unconditional compulsory selection of the ballistic descent is provided for the urgent descent from orbit in case of off-nominal situations jeopardizing the crew safety (depressurization, fire etc.). The ballistic (trajectory) support for such situations is envisaged: once a day (if no dynamic operations are accomplished) form №23-14 is uplinked to the crew onboard the ISS, that form containing data on the engine ignition and the retrofire impulse value for each revolution. The ignition time is selected so as to ensure landing in areas which are called backup landing areas and which are selected in advance taking into account the arbitrary position of the orbital path with respect to the Earth’s surface.

Rescue team

Because cosmonauts could land anywhere in the USSR (or elsewhere) a rescue team, initially comprised of parachutists, was formed in 1960 before Yurii Gagarin’s flight. On 10 October 1966 the paratroop rescue team was integrated into a special Rescue and Research organization in the Air Force. Later on a specialist organization was formed: the Federal Management of Research and Aerospace Rescues, ФПСУ, FPSU.

It is made up of one hundred men, equipped with Mi-8 helicopters, An-12 aircraft and a specially-designed all-terrain rescue vehicle. The FPSU are on standby during Soyuz launches and before and during landings. A helicopter lands near where the Soyuz capsule has come down and extract the cosmonauts (there is a special platform that is brought along and used if the capsule lands upright), taking them to a temporary field hospital set up nearby, then transporting them to the nearby town (usually Arkhalyk in the Northern Kazakhstan landing zone).

After the off-course landing of Soyuz TMA-1 (440 km off-course), the FPSU changed the deployment plan of its planes and helicopters.

In 2006 the FPSU was reorganized and merged with the civilian Russian Federal Aeronavigation Service (Росаэронавигации, Rosaeronavigatsii). The civilian and military services had previously conducted Soyuz retrievals as separate bodies; they now both were under the command of Rosaeronavigatsii (though not completely merged as both had specific tasks). The first mission they worked to retrieve was the landing of Soyuz TMA-8 in September 2006.

Diagrams

Diagrams from the MARS Center.

Soyuz TMA undocking sequence (all diagrams about 24 KB):

Soyuz TMA re-entry profile:

Gallery

Soyuz re-entry view

View of fiery plasma outside a Soyuz window during descent.

Soyuz TM-33 descends (ESA)

Soyuz TM-33 descends under its huge parachute, 5 May 2002

.
TMA-17 landing

Soyuz TMA-17 fires its Soft Landing Engines just before touchdown, 2 June 2010.

Soyuz TM-33 lands (ESA)

Soyuz TM-33 lands in Kazakhstan.

Expedition 11 are retrieved from the Soyuz capsule

Expedition 11 and Gregory Olsen about to be retrieved from the Soyuz TMA-6 Descent Module after landing on 11 October 2005. The capsule came to rest on its side.

Links

Soyuz launch profile

Descriptions of a typical Soyuz launch, taken from Expedition Press Kits and On-Orbit Reports.

Soyuz TMA-3 launch-and-ascent template

Soyuz 7S will fly a standard 34-orbit (2-day) timeline template from launch through docking. Actual day and time of launch must meet certain phasing requirements vis-à-vis the target (ISS) in order for this to work.

Flight operations are highly automated, reliant on stored program command timelines and standard command uplinks.

Soyuz and Progress follow the same basic timeline;

Soyuz crew activities are largely monitor-only functions, with a few exceptions;

Consequently, many systems activities occur only when Russian Ground Sites (RGS) are in line-of-sight (there are 5 RGS);

Rendezvous maneuvers are NOT constrained to occur over Russian tracking network. Post-burn telemetry and tracked is used for maneuver assessment.

Soyuz and Progress vehicles are controlled by a separate, dedicated flight control team in MCC-Moscow (TsUP), not the ISS team.

Soyuz crew operates off the RODF (Russian orbital data file), i.e., five books, covering Ascent/Descent, Orbital Flight, Off-Nominal Situations, Reserve Modes, and Reference Materials, as well as standard radiogram formats. Medical Kit and Portable Survival Kit instructions are translated into English.

Crew preparations for Soyuz launch
L −5 days Crew returned to Baikonur from Moscow where they had final medical; exercise, spacecraft briefing, flight plan briefing, Soyuz Manual Docking simulation; Practice using handheld laser for R and R-dot, P/TV Refresher
L −2 days Traditional events (Commission meetings on mission readiness at Baikonur Hotel) flight crew, backup crew, & flight surgeon, exercise, rest and study
Day of launch
L −3 hours Crew dons suits in test room; RSC-Energiya presentation everything GO with crew and vehicle (RSA); words from VIPs
L −2.5 hours Crew takes bus to launch pad, “waters” tyre about 200 meters from launch pad (old Gagarin tradition ;-)
L −2 hours Spacecraft ingress (through orbital module down into descent module)
Ascent to orbit
  • Takes 9 minutes. At L +9:00 the Soyuz spacecraft separates from the burnt-out booster, at 194 km altitude, 1710 km downrange from Baikonur;
  • major crew action during ascent is to monitor pressures in the orbital module (BO) and descent module (SA), confirm all booster separation, launch escape system jettison and spacecraft separation
  • Crew then monitors all automatic deployments (solar arrays, antennae, etc.), reports on no leaks, probe extension, prop pressurization, and ECLS system and health
  • First orbit should be about 233 x 182 km (average = 207 km). From there, the rendezvous profile follows the two-day standard timeline
  • Liftoff (выведение, vyvedenie)

– Source: 17 October 2003 On-Orbit Report.

Pre-launch

A nominal Soyuz pre-launch profile. This was originally in the Expedition 1 Press Kit, later also posted on the NASA Soyuz Launch Overview and Timeline page. The Press Kits from Expedition 7 onwards also have the same profile. All crews from ISS-7 onwards launched in the Soyuz.

Soyuz pre-launch profile
T −34 hours Booster is prepared for fuel loading
T −6:00:00 Batteries are installed in booster
T −5:30:00 State Commission give permission to take launch vehicle
T −5:15:00 Crew arrives at Site 254
T −5:00:00 Tanking begins
T −4:20:00 Spacesuit donning
T −4:00:00 Booster is loaded with liquid oxygen
T −3:40:00 Crew meets delegations
T −3:10:00 Reports to the State Commission
T −3:05:00 Transfer to the launch pad
T −3:00:00 Vehicle first- and second-stage oxidizer fuelling complete
T −2:35:00 Crew arrives at launch vehicle
T −2:30:00 Crew ingress though Orbital Module side hatch
T −2:00:00 Crew in re-entry vehicle
T −1:45:00 Re-entry vehicle hardware tested; Sokol suits are ventilated
T −1:30:00
  • Launch command monitoring and supply unit prepared
  • Orbital compartment hatch tested for sealing
T −1:00:00 Launch vehicle control system prepared for use; gyro instruments activated
T −:45:00 Launch pad service structure halves are lowered
T −:30:00 Emergency escape system armed; launch command supply unit activated
T −:25:00 Service towers withdrawn
T −:15:00 Suit leak tests complete; crew engages personal escape hardware auto mode
T −:10:00 Launch gyro instruments uncaged; crew activates on-board recorders
T −7:00 All prelaunch operations are complete
T −6:15
  • Key to launch command given at the launch site
  • Automatic program of final launch operations is activated
T −5:00
  • Onboard systems switched to onboard control
  • Ground measurement system activated by RUN 1 command
  • Commander’s controls activated
  • Crew switches to suit air by closing helmets
  • Launch key inserted in launch bunker
T −3:15 Combustion chambers of side and central engine pods purged with nitrogen
T −2:30
  • Booster propellant tank pressurization starts
  • Onboard measurement system activated by RUN 2 command
  • Prelaunch pressurization of all tanks with nitrogen begins
T −2:15
  • Oxidizer and fuel drain and safety valves of launch vehicle are closed
  • Ground filling of oxidizer and nitrogen to the launch vehicle is terminated
T −1:00
  • Vehicle on internal power
  • Automatic sequencer on
  • First umbilical tower separates from booster
T −:40 Ground power supply umbilical to third stage is disconnected
T −:20
  • Launch command given at the launch position
  • Central and side pod engines are turned on
T −:15 Second umbilical tower separates from booster
T −:10 Engine turbopumps at flight speed
T −:05 First-stage engines at maximum thrust
T −:00
  • Fuelling tower separates
  • Lift-off!

Launch & ascent

Soyuz launch & ascent profile
T −:00 Lift-off
T +1:10 Booster velocity is 500 meters/second
T +1:58 Stage 1 (strap-on boosters) separation
T +2:00 Booster velocity is 1500 m/sec
T +2:40 Escape tower & launch shroud jettison
T +4:58
  • Core booster separates at 170 kilometers
  • Third stage ignites
T +7:30 Velocity is 6000 m/sec
T +9:00
  • Third stage cut-off Soyuz separates
  • Antennas and solar panels deploy
  • Flight control switches to TsUP (Moscow Mission Control Center), Korolev

Diagrams

A diagram from the MARS Center site:

Soyuz modules

On this page, more detailed descriptions of the Soyuz’s three modules.

Overview

The Soyuz TMA, like the Progress cargo ship, is comprised of three compartments: a propulsion module, landing module and a utility module. Up to three cosmonauts can be carried into orbit (somewhat cramped accommodations for three full-grown men!) for 3 days or 34 orbits until docking with the ISS. The Soyuz remains docked as an emergency lifeboat for up to 200 days or 6 months until being replaced by a new ship. Up to 100 kg of cargo can be carried as well, and 50 kg returned to Earth (150 kg if only 2 crew members).

Characteristics

Soyuz TMA: basic data
Article number 11F732
Manufacturer’s designation 7K-STMA
Manufacturer Korolev
Crew size 2-3
Design life 14 days
Orbital storage 200.00 days
Typical orbit 407 km circular orbit, 51.6° inclination
Length 6.98 m
Basic diameter 2.20 m
Maximum diameter 2.72 m
Span 10.70 m
Habitable volume 9.00 m3
Mass 7220 kg
Main engine KTDU-80
Main engine thrust 400 kgf
Main engine propellants N2O4/UDMH
Main engine propellants 900 kg
Main engine isp 305 sec
Spacecraft delta v 390 m/s
Electrical system Solar panels, span 10.60 m, area 10.00 sq. m
Electric system 0.60 average kW
Associated launch vehicle Soyuz FG

Instrumentation/Propulsion Module
Приборно-Агрегатный Отсек

Soyuz TMA: Instrumentation/Propulsion Module data
Length 2.26 meters
Basic diameter 2.15 m
Mass 2900 kg
RCS coarse №× thrust 16 × 10 kgf
RCS fine №× thrust 8 × 10 kgf
RCS coarse backup №× thrust No separate backup translation engines
RCS propellants N2O4/UDMH
Main engine KTDU-80
Main engine propellants weight 310 kg
Main engine thrust 632 kgf
Main engine propellants N2O4/UDMH
Main engine propellants weight 880 kg
Main engine isp 302 sec
Electrical system Solar panels, span 10.60 m, area 10.00 m.2
Electric system 0.60 average kW

The rear module of the Instrumentation/Propulsion Module (PAO) is itself divided into three components:

The PAO is separate from the other two compartments, and can’t be accessed by the cosmonauts. Its functions are controlled remotely by TsUP, Moscow Mission Control.

Soyuz propellants

The propellants (fuel and oxidizer) in the Soyuz are:

The Soyuz’s stay in orbit is limited as the H2O2deteriorates over time, as this ISS On-Orbit Status Report from 2 September 2004 notes:

Update on Soyuz 9S: Launch of CDR Leroy Chiao and FE Salizhan Sharipov continues to be set for 10/9. Their Soyuz TMA-5 spacecraft is the first with two new features that are welcome improvements of the reliable old crew transport: two additional forward-pointing braking thrusters (#27, #28) besides the two engines (#17, #18) already near the Orbital Module’s docking ring; and a thermo-electric cooler for the Descent Module’s Hydrogen Peroxide tankage, to extend the life of the H2O2 which tends to deteriorate in time to H2O and O. (H2O2 is one of the most powerful oxidizers known – stronger than chlorine, chlorine dioxide, and potassium permanganate, but it has been [and still is, until certification] limiting Soyuz’ orbital stay time).

As noted in that extract, the addition of the cooling system for the H2O2 only extends the stay-in-space to 180-210 days (6-7 months) rather than a year as intended in the original more extensive Soyuz upgrade (called Soyuz TMM). This would have also included the installation of improved storage batteries and the oxidizer tanks to be made from steel rather than the current aluminum alloy.

Descent Module
Спускаемый Аппарат

Soyuz TMA: Descent Module data
Length 2.24 m
Basic diameter 2.17 m
Maximum diameter 2.17 m
Habitable volume 3.50 m3
Mass 2950 kg
Crew mass 255 kg
Payload 1355 kg
Return payload 50 kg (crew of 3), 150 kg (crew of 2)
RCS coarse №× thrust 6 × 10 kgf
RCS propellants H2O2
RCS propellants 40 kg
Main engine propellants 45 kg

The Descent Module (SA) is the command center of the Soyuz craft; this middle section contains all the mission-critical controls and displays. The spacecraft is operated by a digital computer, and displays are presented on two amber digital screens in the TMA version.

During ascent and descent, the two or three crew recline in Kazbek-U, «Казбек-У» seats; each crew member has a special seat liner moulded to his or her physical dimensions when seated on their back with knees up. The module is stuffed with life support equipment for every conceivable environment and situation that might be encountered upon landing.

The environmental system keeps the temperature around 18-20°C, and humidity at 40%. The atmosphere is a nitrogen/oxygen mix, like that of Earth’s.

Two small windows, 20cm in diameter, are set to port and starboard, at the elbows of the crew in the left and right-hand seats. (These windows have outside covers which are deployed during the hot plasma phase of reentry, then are jettisoned.) The commander sits in the middle, the first flight engineer to his left, and the second FE or space tourist to his right.

The commander (Командир Экипажа, КЭ, KE) is responsible for overall operations and decisions. He controls and flies the Soyuz during all flight maneuvers, and communicates with the ground. Docking is usually automated, but the commander can take over manual control if the system malfunctions for some reason.

The Soyuz is controlled by two joysticks on either side of the commander:

The first flight engineer (Бортинженер, БИ, BI) on the commander’s left and is responsible for thrusters, attitude control, navigation, life-support systems and general vehicle functions.

The third seat on the right is occupied by the second FE, or a guest cosmonaut-researcher (участник космического полета) or “space flight participant” (участник экспедиции посещения) (paying private visitor). In the Soyuz TM they were responsible for monitoring communications, navigation and life support systems, but in the TMA these have been shifted to the first Flight Engineer.

There is no forward-facing window for the commander to look out of, so between his knees is a periscope, through which he can observe the docking mechanism at the forward end, and also look downwards to see the Earth’s surface. To reach the controls he must use a stick to poke at the buttons! (I do not know the name of the stick.)

Like the PAO, the SA has a guidance, navigation and control system; the SA one is independent and less complex. Eight hydrogen peroxide thrusters are used to control the ship’s attitude; these are only employed in the descent phase (as are power batteries for the SA equipment). The propellant tanks are in a separate pressurized volume, sealed with an access cover, as are the primary and backup parachute containers.

The huge primary parachute has concentric orange-and-white stripes. Its release is preceded by two pilot and one drogue chutes. There is a slightly smaller reserve parachute.

After the modules separate, only the SA returns to Earth (hopefully!) intact. Landings can be rather rough, especially if there is a wind to catch the parachute and pull the capsule over and along after touchdown! The crew is then hauled out through the single top hatch (or, if the module has ended up on its side, they can crawl out). The hatch, 70cm in diameter, can be opened from either side.

The Soyuz improvements were based on NASA requests to accommodate its taller astronauts (perhaps they should eat less American junk food!!). These included:

From 2009, with the doubling in Soyuz flights from 2 to 4 per year due to the ISS crew being increased to 6, the previously single-use Kazbek-UM seats are to be reused. Their manufacturer, NPP Zvezda, is to make modifications to enable this. After landing of the Descent Module, the seats will be returned to Zvezda so their condition can be evaluated and the seats repaired.

Orbital Module
Бытовой Отсек

Soyuz TMA: Orbital Module data
Length 2.98 m
Basic Diameter 2.26 m
Maximum Diameter 2.26 m
Habitable Volume 5.00 m3
Mass 1370 kg
Docking system Lightweight male/female with flange-type probe, internal transfer tunnel. Kurs automatic rendezvous and docking system with two Kurs antennae, no tower
Docking collar length 0.22 m
Probe length 0.50 m
Base diameter 1.35 m
Ring diameter 1.35 m
Windows One “blister” window at the front to provide a forward view

The Orbital Module (BO) provides living space during the orbital phase of the Soyuz flight. Systems in the living quarters are analogous to those in the Zvezda Service Module, though in more compact form. The pressurized sphere contains food lockers, remote controls and the all-important space toilet (albeit a very basic one). The crew attach sleeping bags to the curved walls and sleep in these.

At the forward end of the BO is the docking equipment: Kurs apparatus, connecting hatch and rendezvous antennas. A crew member is stationed at the small blister window to aid the commander during docking.

There is a third hatch in the side of the BO through which the crew enter when boarding at the launch pad. It can also serve as exit/entry for EVAs with the BO used as an airlock (the other two main hatches are sealed off for this).

The pressurized, spherical BO is connected at its rear to the SA by a sealable hatch. Like the Instrument Module, the BO separates from the SA after retrofire during the deorbit maneuver, and disintegrates and burns up upon entering the atmosphere.

Diagrams

Gallery

Cosmonaut Budarin in Descent Module (NASA)

Cosmonaut Nikolai Budarin (Expedition 6) is very snugly seated in the Descent Module! The stick or pole he is holding is used to poke at the control panel in front of him as he can’t reach the buttons when tightly strapped into his seat.

Expedition 11 in Soyuz TMA trainer simulator (ESA)

Expedition 11 seated in the Soyuz flight simulator at Zvyozdnyi Gorokok, March 2005. John Phillips (left) is the second Flight Engineer; Sergei Krikalyov (middle) is the Soyuz commander, and Roberto Vittori is Flight Engineer-1.

Expedition 11 inside the Soyuz Orbital Module (ESA)

Expedition 11 inside the spherical Orbital Module during the 2-day flight to the ISS. (ESA)

Links